63 Dancing for Hathor: Nubian Women in Egyptian Cultic Life Solange Ashby In the non-literate and nomadic C-Group culture of Lower Nubia, ritual and worship were not organized around a sacred text, nor were they carried out in a temple.1 Rather, many important rites of passage and worship were heavily associated with communal per- formance of dance and music. In such rituals the power of music and movement were harnessed to transport the worshipper into an ecstatic encounter with the Divine. Worshippers, engaged in noc- turnal rituals for the goddess Hathor, sought this type of ecstatic encounter. It appears that the ecstatic nature of the dancing per- formed for the goddess and the spiritual “drunkenness” that it in- duced were valued in the ritual context of celebrations for Hathor: goddess of music, dance, love, and fertility. Women were the essen- tial performers of the nocturnal dances in the rites. While Egyptian women comprised the majority of the priestesses of Hathor, Nubian women are attested over several millennia as dancers in the celebra- tion of the cult. Earlier Egyptologists reveal a racism that disparaged the type of dance performed by the Nubian women as “wild” and de- scribed the women as wearing “barbarous” clothing. Brunner-Traut suggested that, “only as an exception, though, do Negro girls dance in a way that assimilates Egyptian sophistication.”2 Nubian women appear as Hathoric dancers from the Middle Kingdom (2000–1700 bce) through the Roman period (30 bce–395 ce). Representations of priestesses of Hathor sporadically, but re- 1 Yellin, “Nubian Religion,” p. 125. The C-Group is attested archaeologically as an indigenous population of Lower Nubia from the Egyptian Old Kingdom (ca. 2685 BCE) through the Egyptian occupation of Lower Nubia (1550 BCE). While the C-Group people did not disappear from Lower Nubia, their archaeological artifacts became highly Egyptianized: Näser, “The C-Group in Lower Nubia,” p. 351. 2 Brunner-Traut, Der Tanz im alten Ägypten, p. 223. See fn. 62 for the full quote. Ashby, Solange. “Dancing for Hathor: Nubian Women in Egyptian Cultic Life.” Dotawo 5 (2018): pp. 63–90. 64 Ashby peatedly, included Nubian3 women dancers, singers, and musicians engaged in religious celebrations of the Beautiful One, the Gold, the Lady of Dance, the goddess Hathor. Tattooed priestesses of Ha- thor, preserved as mummies from the Eleventh Dynasty (Middle Kingdom), bore designs otherwise found only on contemporane- ous C-Group women of Lower Nubia. Beginning in the New King- dom (1550–1070 bce), Nubian women appear in Egyptian tomb and temple art that depicts banquet scenes where those women act as musicians and dancers. In the Ptolemaic period (323–30 bce) temple at Medamud, the hieroglyphic text of a hymn to Hathor describes the dancing Nubians who accompanied the goddess on her return from Nubia in her manifestation as Tefnut, the Eye of Re. Perform- ing sacred dances for Hathor, Nubian dancers, musicians, and ac- robats were a recurring theme in representations of Hathoric rites, jubilees, and banquet scenes for millennia. Lower Nubian Religion In the non-literate societies of Nubia, religious practices would have been performed communally and preserved orally.4 In contrast to the Egyptian tradition of temples decorated with hieroglyphic texts and scenes of the gods, Nubian religious rites of the C-Group (con- temporary with Middle Kingdom Egypt) centered on communal celebrations performed in sacred places, often located on hilltops or in caves. Processions5 associated with pilgrimage to sacred sites involved large groups of lay worshippers6 who engaged in feasting7 and ritual consumption of sorghum beer,8 which was likely accom- panied by song and dance performed for the gods. Although this practice bears superficial resemblance to the Egyptian incorpora- tion of music and dance into their religious worship, these elements seem to have been central to the religious practices of C-Group peo- 3 I assume these women were of Nubian background based on their depiction with dark brown skin in contrast to the standard Egyptian depiction of women with light brown/ yellow skin. There is no need to assume these Nubian women were not resident in Egypt. With a long history of immigration in both directions, both Nubia and Egypt were very heterogeneous societies. 4 I refer to Nubian popular religion as opposed to the elite religion of Nubia during the Napatan and Meroitic periods, which were highly Egyptianized. 5 Yellin, “Nubian Religion,” pp. 136, 141. 6 The addition of porches to temples in the Late Period was closely linked to changes in the composition of processions during the Kushite (Nubian) 25th Dynasty, when laymen joined the priests in procession. See Arnold, Temples of the Last Pharaohs, pp. 282–84. 7 Smith, “Pharaohs, Feasts, and Foreigners,” pp. 49, 55–56. Feasting is mentioned in Nubian prayer inscriptions at Philae and Dakka. See, Griffith, Catalogue of Demotic Graffiti of the Dodecaschoenos, vol. 1, pp. 26–31 (Dak. 30) and pp. 114–119 (Ph. 416). Mentioned twice in each graffito, the celebratory feasting occured in conjunction with processions and festivals. See also Ashby, Calling Out to Isis, pp. 19, 168, 232. 8 Edwards, “Sorghum, Beer and Kushite Society,” pp. 74–76. For evidence of the continuing cultural importance of sorghum beer, see Rekdal, “Money, Milk and Sorghum Beer,” pp. 368–373, esp. p. 370. Dancing for Hathor 65 ple who did not have a temple-based religion or sacred written texts, and perhaps did not have a hierarchical priesthood such as those as- sociated with Egyptian temples. The two distinct systems of wor- ship were reflective of the difference between the pastoral lifestyle typical of the C-Group populations and the settled, agricultural so- ciety maintained by the Egyptians. The ancient Nubians worshiped their gods on hilltops and in caves as well as at the graves of their dead. Until the Egyptian conquest of Nubia in the New Kingdom, the ancient Nubians were non-literate. With the exception of the Kerma culture, they did not construct permanent religious structures until after the Egyptians began building temples in Nubia.9 In this paper I will suggest that traditional forms of ritual music and dance, a central element in the religious practice of Nubians, were incorporated into Egyptian rites performed for the goddess Hathor whose origin in Nubia and journey to Egypt would have been cele- brated appropriately with Nubian music and dance. A type of dance called the ksks-dance, attributed to Nubians, was incorporated into Egyptian rites performed for the goddess Hathor during the Middle Kingdom when Egypt colonized Nubia and came into intense con- tact with the C-Group people living there. The first textual attes- tation of the ksks-dance appears in the Middle Kingdom10 (c. 2000 BCE) in reference to a cultic dance performed for Hathor and was the name of a dance, performed by black people, described in schol- arly literature as “Negertanz.”11 Depictions of dark-skinned women (relative to Egyptian women who are traditionally painted a light brownish-yellow color) continue to appear in Egyptian art during the Ramesside period (c. 1200–1000 BCE), while hieroglyphic textual references from a Ptolemaic temple (c. 150 BCE) at Medamud and Roman-period prayer inscriptions found in temples of Lower Nubia (first century ce) continue to describe the journey to Egypt of Nu- bian worshippers of Hathor. Meroitic funerary chapel scenes from 9 Yellin, “Nubian Religion,” pp. 125, 131. The religious structures found at Kerma (2500–1450 bce) are distinctly different from Egyptian temples. Built to resemble “high places,” the deffufa are solid mud brick structures that provide a high place for worship on a flat area at the top. The Eastern Defuffa at Kerma was originally surmounted by a monolithic stela, which was five meters high. At nearby Doukki Gel, Charles Bonnet has also discovered a series of circular structures that predate the temples of Thutmose I of the Eighteenth Dynasty, the earliest Egyptian king to conquer Kerma. See Bonnet, “Un ensemble religieux nubien devant une forteresse égyptienne du début de la XVIIIe dynastie,” pp. 98–106. 10 Brunner-Traut, Der Tanz im alten Ägypten, pp. 79–80. 11 Brunner-Traut’s use of the offensive German term Neger to refer to the dark-skinned dancers who she deems “foreign” is perfectly in keeping with her racist portrayal of the people and their dance as “wild”, “inflamed,” and “uncontrolled,” which Brunner-Traut contrasts to the elegance of the Egyptian style of dance. For a particularly offensive quote, see ibid., p. 81 “Zusammenfassung”. 66 Ashby the first century ce may depict the same dance, emphasizing the southern origins of this type of dance. European travellers in 19th century Egypt and Sudan commented on the unique dances that they witnessed being performed for important community events. It is asserted here that a continuous method of worshipping the divine is manifested in the Hathoric dances, music, and religious iconography associated with Nubian women worshippers from the Middle Kingdom to the Roman period. Mythological Description of Hathor’s Return from Nubia In the Tale of the Sun’s Eye,12 an enraged Tefnut, in the form of a bloodthirsty lion goddess, stalked the Earth devouring humanity, which had rebelled against her father Re while he reigned as king in Egypt.13 The Egyptian gods Shu and Thoth travelled to Bougem, in southeastern Nubia,14 where they transformed into monkeys to safely approach the lion goddess. The two gods danced, plied the goddess with copious amounts of wine, and spoke magical spells to pacify and beguile Tefnut so that she might be calmed and enticed to travel to Egypt. Soothed by the dance of Shu and the magical words of Thoth and thoroughly intoxicated on the wine they offered to her, Tefnut was convinced to make the journey from Nubia to Egypt.