University of California, Irvine The Great Debate of the Digital Age: Liberty, Security, and COVID-19 A Thesis submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Urban and Regional Planning in Social Ecology by Fangyangzi (Olivia) Huang Thesis Committee: Professor Scott A. Bollens, Chair Professor David Feldman Chancellor’s Professor Jeffrey Wasserstrom 2021 © 2021 Fangyangzi (Olivia) Huang All rights preserved TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................................... 1 PART I: THEORIES ............................................................................................................................................... 4 The Harm Principle ............................................................................................................................................... 4 Confucianism and Collectivism in China .............................................................................................................. 5 Individualist Culture in the United States ............................................................................................................. 6 The Concept of Social Control .............................................................................................................................. 8 Mannheim and the Benefits of Centralized Control .............................................................................................. 9 Individual Freedom vs. Collectivism ................................................................................................................... 10 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 12 PART II: THE DIGITIZATION OF SOCIAL CONTROL WORLDWIDE ....................................................................... 13 PART III: THE DAWN OF CHINA’S “INVISIBLE EYES” .......................................................................................... 14 Cultivating Model Citizenship: China’s Social Credit System ........................................................................... 16 Preparing for the Next Contagious Crisis: China After SARS ............................................................................ 18 Summary:............................................................................................................................................................. 20 PART IV: DIGITAL SURVEILLANCE IN THE U.S. .................................................................................................... 21 The COINTELPRO Program and the Death of Jean Seberg .............................................................................. 23 The Rise of the United States Surveillance Community ...................................................................................... 26 Digital Surveillance Since 9/11, and the USA Patriot Act .................................................................................. 27 Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 29 PART V: COMPARING CHINA AND UNITED STATES’ RESPONSES TO COVID-19 ................................................ 30 Making History: China, Technology, and COVID-19 ........................................................................................ 30 The U.S. Divided during COVID-19 ................................................................................................................... 33 RESEARCH ................................................................................................................................................. 36 PART I: RESEARCH QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................. 36 PART II: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 36 Specific Aims and Significance............................................................................................................................ 36 Research Approach, Design, and Methodology .................................................................................................. 37 Data Analysis Strategy ........................................................................................................................................ 38 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................................................................ 39 INTERVIEW ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................ 40 THEME 1: PERSONAL DEFINITION OF FREEDOM .................................................................................................. 41 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 41 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 42 THEME 2: DEFINING FREEDOM IN THE DIGITAL AGE .......................................................................................... 44 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 44 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 46 THEME 3: THE IMPORTANCE OF FREEDOM TO INDIVIDUALS .............................................................................. 48 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 48 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 50 THEME 4: VIEWS ON COUNTRY’S SUPPORT OF INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM............................................................... 52 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 52 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 54 THEME 5: THOUGHTS ON COLLECTIVE CONSCIOUSNESS .................................................................................... 57 ii American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 57 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 60 THEME 6: PERSPECTIVES ON DIGITAL SURVEILLANCE ........................................................................................ 64 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 64 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 68 THEME 7: AMERICANS’ VIEWS OF CHINA AND CHINESE VIEWS OF AMERICA ................................................... 73 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 73 THEME 8: PERSPECTIVES ON SACRIFICING LIBERTY FOR SECURITY .................................................................. 79 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 79 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 81 THEME 9: IS DIGITAL SURVEILLANCE EFFECTIVE AND IMPORTANT FOR SOCIAL ORDER AND SAFETY? ......... 83 Americans:........................................................................................................................................................... 83 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 86 THEME 10: IS IT POSSIBLE TO PROTECT THE COUNTRY WHILE ALSO PROTECTING CITIZENS’ LIBERTY? .... 88 American: ............................................................................................................................................................ 88 Chinese: ............................................................................................................................................................... 91 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................................................................