Introduction “Viva la Raza! Chicano Power!” I first heard these stirring words when I arrived in San Jose, California, in the fall of 1969. I had come from El Paso, Texas, to begin teaching as an instructor of history at San Jose State College (later San Jose State University). The rallying cry was my introduction to the Chicano movement. It had barely surfaced in El Paso, so what I encountered in San Jose was mind-boggling. I had heard about the movement, of course, and, in preparing a class on Chicano history, I had read up on it, discovering some of the emerging journals, such as El Grito, and movement newspapers in California. But none of this research prepared me for what I would personally experience. I met militant Chicano students, Chicano studies faculty, and members of the Black Berets, the likes of whom I had never before encountered.1 At first, I felt distant from them, and even a bit scared. But as I got to know some of these activ- ists better, I came to identify with them and with the issues they were passionate about. I participated in marches and rallies against injustice to Chicanos in the schools and the community and especially against police abuse. (I had never seen such huge and intimidating cops—all white—as I did in San Jose!) It did not take me long to identify as Chicano and to align myself with the movement. Of course, I knew the term Chicano. I had first encountered it in my all-boys Catholic high school in El Paso in the early 1960s. Mexican American kids from the hard-core barrio of south El Paso used it to assert pride. I lived, literally, on the other side of the tracks, in an ethnically mixed lower-middle-class neighborhood, and did not use the term myself but admired the students who did. Now, in the late 1960s, the term was connected to the Chicano movement and used politically by a 1 García - 978052028601.indd 1 27/11/14 3:28 PM 2 introduction new generation to express the militant demands for civil rights, ethnic pride, and community empowerment. Indeed, this is my generation—the Chicano generation. I too came of age in the 1960s and became politically conscious, first as a liberal Democrat and then as a participant in the Chicano movement. As a graduate student interested in Chicano history and as a professor of Chicano studies, I supported a variety of movement actions both on campuses and in the community. Through this oral history of Chi- cano movement activists, I have learned even more about my generational history. It was the movement that provided the opportunity for me to advance my edu- cation, eventually obtaining a PhD in history and joining a university faculty. I owe much to the movement, and, as a professor of Chicano studies and a student of Chicano history, I aim to pass on to others the legacy of this struggle for social justice and ethnic respect. The cry “Chicano Power!” still resonates within me and is very much a part of who I have become. I began this collaborative oral history, or testimonio, and the interviews with three key participants in the movement in Los Angeles in the early 1990s: Raul Ruiz, Gloria Arellanes, and Rosalio Muñoz. The text was more than twenty years in preparation. For this delay, I apologize to Raul, Gloria, and Rosalio. This study is a collective testimonio of three major activists in the Chicano movement in Los Angeles during its heyday in the late 1960s and early 1970s. The years from 1965 to 1975 are especially critical in the struggle for civil rights, renewed identity, and empowerment by a new generation of Mexican Americans who revived the older barrio term Chicano as a symbol of new ethnic awareness and political power. The termtestimonio, or testimony, comes out of a rich Latin Amer- ican tradition of producing oral histories, or oral memoirs, through the collabora- tion of political activists or revolutionaries with progressive scholars or journal- ists.2 The result is an oral testimony of the life, struggles, and experiences of activists who might not have written their own stories. While they focus on one life, testimonios are also collective in nature because they address collective strug- gles. Ruiz, Arellanes, and Muñoz are leaders, but they are group-centered leaders. But more than just narrating life stories, testimonios are intended to educate others and inspire them to continue the struggles of the storytellers. Testimonios possess praxes: for readers to read, reflect, and act. That is what makes them a powerful teaching vehicle. The Chicano Generation is in the testimonio tradition. It differs by concentrat- ing not just on one subject but on three. This gives it a collective character, or what Jeremy Popkin calls a “coordinated autobiography.”3 I chose to focus on the Chi- cano movement in Los Angeles because the city represented the political capital of the movement. Every major political manifestation of the movement occurred in the City of Angels, including efforts in support of César Chávez and the farmwork- ers’ struggle; the student movement highlighted by the 1968 East Los Angeles García - 978052028601.indd 2 27/11/14 3:28 PM introduction 3 school “blowouts,” or walkouts; the Chicano antiwar movement, including the his- toric National Chicano Antiwar Moratorium of August 29, 1970; the organization of La Raza Unida Party, an independent Chicano political party; the Chicana fem- inist movement; the organizing of undocumented workers; and the Chicano Ren- aissance, the flourishing of movement-inspired literary and artistic production. The life stories of Ruiz, Arellanes, and Muñoz touch on many of these manifesta- tions. While each testimonio is presented here as a separate section, they speak to one another, since these activists participated in many of the same events. I worked with my protagonists for a long time, interviewing them and record- ing their stories. Altogether, I conducted almost one hundred hours of taped inter- views. I have many fond memories of driving to the Los Angeles area from my home in Santa Barbara to interview first Ruiz and Muñoz and later Arellanes. These were wonderful times. I learned about their lives and political engagements. Each of the three narratives is a life story, including family history, childhood, young adulthood, early school experiences, college years, and, of course, the indi- vidual’s role in the movement. I also include material on postmovement years to the present. Each narrative is told in the subject’s voice, based on taped interviews, which I edited for chronology and clarity. The Chicano movement was a defining moment in the lives of Raul Ruiz, Gloria Arellanes, and Rosalio Muñoz. They were part of the Chicano generation that con- stituted the driving force of the movement—young Mexican Americans, mostly U.S.-born, who came of age during the 1960s and early 1970s and who were trans- formed politically from Mexican Americans into Chicanos. They discovered, or rediscovered, the term Chicano, used by hard-core barrio youth to characterize their ethnic identity, and they redefined it, retaining its countercultural connota- tions but infusing the term with a political consciousness. To be a Chicano in the movement was no longer just to be a vato loco, or street dude (a descendant of the pachucos and zoot-suiters of the 1940s and 1950s), but instead an activist in the movement. This was the new Chicano generation—La Raza Nueva. The Chicano movement was the largest and most widespread civil rights and empowerment struggle by Mexican Americans in U.S. history. It combined the more traditional civil rights issues of the earlier Mexican American generation (1930–60)—which pioneered struggles to desegregate the so-called Mexican schools in the Southwest, where the majority of Mexican Americans resided—with efforts to break down discriminatory barriers in jobs, housing, the legal system, and political representation and to eliminate cultural stereotyping.4 Although the Chi- cano movement was not aware of (or did not acknowledge) this precedent, in many ways it built on the earlier civil rights movement. Of course, the movement also has to be seen in the context of “the sixties,” the period that, despite its name, actually spilled over into the 1970s. The black civil rights movement, Black Power, the New Frontier of President John F. Kennedy, the Great Society of President Lyndon B. García - 978052028601.indd 3 27/11/14 3:28 PM 4 introduction Johnson, the white student movement, the anti–Vietnam War movement, the wom- en’s movement, along with the youth counterculture and the general rebelliousness of that era—all affected the Chicano movement in one way or another. The move- ment found particular inspiration in Black Power, with its assertive identity cen- tered on ethnic pride and self-discovery. Chicano Power, like Black Power, called for a new Chicano identity and change based on the rediscovery of Chicano culture. Chicanismo, or cultural nationalism, stressed several themes. Central to chican- ismo was the claim that Chicanos were an indigenous people because of their Mexican Indian and mestizo (Indian and Spanish) heritage. They were not immi- grants but natives of the Southwest and of the Americas. As indigenous people, Chicanos possessed a historical homeland: Aztlán. In their historical excavation Chicanos rediscovered this northern birthplace of the Aztecs before the migration south and the establishment of the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico (later Mexico City). Chicanos asserted the controversial posi- tion that Aztlán had existed in what became the southwestern region of the United States, the area taken by the United States from Mexico in the 1840s.