Contradictory Stereotypical Depictions of Japan’s Relationship with Technology in the British Press Christopher J. Hayes A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Modern Languages Cardiff University Submitted: June 2018 Revised and Resubmitted: December 2018 i ii Declaration This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed:………………………………………………………(candidate) Date ………….………… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of PhD. Signed………………………………………….……………(candidate) Date ………….…………… STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated, and the thesis has not been edited by a third party beyond what is permitted by Cardiff University’s Policy on the Use of Third Party Editors by Research Degree Students. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed……………………………………….……….……(candidate) Date …….………………… STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed……………………………………………..…..…..(candidate) Date ……………………… STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available online in the University’s Open Access repository and for inter-library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Academic Standards & Quality Committee. Signed……………………………………………..………(candidate) Date ……………….……… iii iv Acknowledgements This PhD research and the resultant thesis would not have been possible without the support of the various funding bodies that generously provided financial assistance at every stage of the project. The first three years of this degree (2014-2017) was funded by a postgraduate studentship from the Great Britain Sasakawa Foundation (GBSF), whose involvement has not only provided the financial means by which I could support myself whilst carrying out my research, but has also given me opportunities to disseminate my research and involve myself within the academic community. I would also like to thank the British Association for Japanese Studies (BAJS) for awarding me the John Crump Studentship to aid with living costs during my writing-up year (2017-2018). The two fieldtrips necessary for obtaining crucial data were supported with funds from the Japan Foundation Endowment Committee (JFEC), which fully covered a one- month period of fieldwork in Tokyo in October 2015, and the Sir Philip Reckitt Educational Trust (SPRET), which assisted with travel costs for the second fieldtrip in October 2016. This thesis would not exist without the contributions of a great many people: contacts who helped put me in touch with prospective interviews, those interviewees who provided invaluable information on the use of fax machines and robots in Japan, friends and contacts in Tokyo and throughout Japan. While interview data has been anonymised, I would like to thank all companies and representatives who consented to interview, for giving up their time to answer my questions, for their hospitality, and for going the extra mile, in some cases sending me additional information after the interview. I would like to thank those journalists at the Foreign Correspondents Club of Japan (FCCJ), for introducing me to other journalists, answering my questions, and offering additional help where they could. The last four years would not have been possible without the support of my family, my friends—not least those at 772—and my peers in the School of Modern Languages. Lastly, I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr Christopher Hood and Professor Gordon Cumming, who have guided me through this entire process, offering their combined expertise and encouragement. v Abstract Fake news has become a global buzzword, grabbing headlines and sparking debate about how to identify fabricated stories. However, inaccuracy can arise in other ways. A key example of this is stereotyping in the media, which affects not only minority groups, but entire nations. Japan is a country often defined in the British media through stereotypical depictions, falling back on Orientalised, unchanging notions of ‘Japaneseness’ and its perceived difference to the West. The reporting of Japan’s use of technology in the British press, however, presents a puzzle: in some instances, Japan is depicted as being low-tech, whilst in others, Japan is high-tech. These are not contrasts, but direct contradictions. How can they coexist? Extant research has blamed journalists as lazy, lacking knowledge about Japan or for ‘Japan-bashing’, but has done so without taking the time to interview journalists. No previous research has explained the coexistence of contradictory stereotypical depictions, nor considered why journalists employ stereotypical depictions in articles. The thesis goes beyond demonstrating misrepresentation, and considers how these contradictory depictions can coexist, whether they can be evidenced, and why they persist. Taking articles about fax machines as an example of low-tech Japan and articles about robots for high-tech Japan, the thesis combines critical discourse analysis and fieldwork to test depictions against empirical evidence. It reveals that these technologies are not used to the extent depicted in the British media, and that the context for their use is omitted. It also shows that these depictions are not as contradictory as it first appears, as they derive from the same stereotypical knowledge. Furthermore, these depictions are not the result of lazy journalism, but complex systemic factors within foreign news reporting. These findings are not only significant for the reporting of Japan, but for understanding the media depictions of many other countries, too. vi Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures .................................................................................................................... x List of Appendix Tables ................................................................................................... xii Notes on Style ................................................................................................................. xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 Aims & Methods............................................................................................................ 4 Originality & Significance ............................................................................................ 5 Key Concepts................................................................................................................. 6 Thesis Structure ......................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................ 13 Stereotyping ................................................................................................................ 15 Stereotyping of Japan ............................................................................................. 19 Orientalism ................................................................................................................. 24 Japan-Specific Orientalism ..................................................................................... 28 Stereotyping and Orientalism in the Media ............................................................. 32 Media Representation of Japan ............................................................................. 37 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 3: Methodology................................................................................................. 44 Japan as the Case ........................................................................................................ 44 Selection of Methods for the Case Study................................................................... 50 To what extent are stereotypical depictions present in news articles about technology in Japan? .............................................................................................. 50 Are contradictory stereotypical depictions products of different stereotypical knowledge? ............................................................................................................. 51 Are contradictory stereotypical depictions supported by evidence? ................ 51 Triangulation .......................................................................................................... 52 Document Review I: Assembling Corpora ................................................................ 53 Document Review II: Analyses of Corpora ........................................................... 58 vii Fieldwork: Observation .............................................................................................. 68 Fieldwork: