The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Editor-in-Chief: O. Hutzinger Volume 5 Water Pollution Part O Advisory Board: D.Barceló·P.Fabian·H.Fiedler·H.Frank·J.P.Giesy·R.A.Hites T. A. Kassim · M. A. K. Khalil · D. Mackay · A. H. Neilson J. Paasivirta · H. Parlar · S. H. Safe · P.J. Wangersky The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Recently Published and Forthcoming Volumes Environmental Specimen Banking Marine Organic Matter: Biomarkers, Volume Editors: S. A. Wise and P.P.R. Becker Isotopes and DNA Vol. 3/S, 2006 Volume Editor: J. K. Volkman Vol. 2/N, 2005 Polymers: Chances and Risks Volume Editors: P. Eyerer, M. Weller Environmental Photochemistry Part II and C. Hübner Volume Editors: P. Boule, D. Bahnemann Vol. 3/V, 2006 and P. Robertson Vol. 2/M, 2005 The Rhine Volume Editor: T.P. Knepper Air Quality in Airplane Cabins Vol. 5/L, 03.2006 and Similar Enclosed Spaces VolumeEditor:M.B.Hocking Persistent Organic Pollutants Vol. 4/H, 2005 in the Great Lakes Volume Editor: R. A. Hites Environmental Effects Vol. 5/N, 2006 of Marine Finfish Aquaculture VolumeEditor:B.T.Hargrave Antifouling Paint Biocides Vol. 5/M, 2005 VolumeEditor:I.Konstantinou Vol. 5/O, 2006 The Mediterranean Sea Volume Editor: A. Saliot Estuaries Vol. 5/K, 2005 VolumeEditor:P.J.Wangersky Vol. 5/H, 2006 Environmental Impact Assessment of Recycled Wastes on Surface and Ground Waters The Caspian Sea Environment Engineering Modeling and Sustainability Volume Editors: A. Kostianoy and A. Kosarev Volume Editor: T. A. Kassim Vol. 5/P, 2005 Vol. 5/F (3 Vols.), 2005 Oxidants and Antioxidant Defense Systems Volume Editor : T. Gr une Vol. 2/O, 2005 Antifouling Paint Biocides Volume Editor : Ioannis K. Konstantinou With contributions by T. A. Albanis · A. Baart · D. Barceló · J. Boon · C. Brunori · K. Fent A. R. Fernández-Alba · B. van Hattum · M. D. Hernando · I. Ipolyi I. K. Konstantinou · P. Massanisso · M. Mezcua · H. Mieno R.Morabito·H.Okamura·I.Omae·J.W.Readman V.A. Sakkas · N. Voulvoulis · H. Yamada 123 Environmental chemistry is a rather young and interdisciplinary field of science. Its aim is a complete description of the environment and of transformations occurring on a local or global scale. Environ- mental chemistry also gives an account of the impact of man’s activities on the natural environment by describing observed changes. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry provides the compilation of today’s knowledge. Contribu- tions are written by leading experts with practical experience in their fields. The Handbook will grow with the increase in our scientific understanding and should provide a valuable source not only for scientists, but also for environmental managers and decision-makers. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry is published in a series of five volumes: Volume 1: The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles Volume 2: Reactions and Processes Volume 3: Anthropogenic Compounds Volume 4: Air Pollution Volume 5: Water Pollution The series Volume 1 The Natural Environment and the Biogeochemical Cycles describes the natural environment and gives an account of the global cycles for elements and classes of natural compounds. The series Volume 2 Reactions and Processes is an account of physical transport, and chemical and biological transformations of chemicals in the environment. The series Volume 3 Anthropogenic Compounds describes synthetic compounds, and compound classes as well as elements and naturally occurring chemical entities which are mobilized by man’s activities. The series Volume 4 Air Pollution and Volume 5 Water Pollution deal with the description of civilization’s effects on the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Within the individual series articles do not appear in a predetermined sequence. Instead, we invite contributors as our knowledge matures enough to warrant a handbook article. Suggestions for new topics from the scientific community to members of the Advisory Board or to the Publisher are very welcome. Library of Congress Control Number: 2005938925 ISSN 1433-6863 ISBN-10 3-540-31404-0 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York ISBN-13 978-3-540-31404-2 Springer Berlin Heidelberg New York DOI 10.1007/11555148 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broad- casting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer is a part of Springer Science+Business Media springer.com c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2006 Printed in Germany The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Cover design: E. Kirchner, Springer-Verlag Typesetting and Production: LE-TEXJelonek,Schmidt&VöcklerGbR,Leipzig Printed on acid-free paper 02/3141 YL – 5 4 3 2 1 0 Editor-in-Chief Prof. em. Dr. Otto Hutzinger Universität Bayreuth c/o Bad Ischl Office Grenzweg 22 5351 Aigen-Vogelhub, Austria [email protected] Volume Editor Dr. Ioannis K. Konstantinou Department of Environmental and Natural Resources Management University of Ioannina Seferi 2 30100, Agrinio, Greece [email protected] Advisory Board Prof. Dr. D. Barceló Prof. Dr. J. P. Giesy Dept. of Environmental Chemistry Department of Zoology IIQAB-CSIC Michigan State University JordiGirona, 18–26 East Lansing, MI 48824-1115, USA 08034 Barcelona, Spain [email protected] [email protected] Prof. Dr. R. A. Hites Prof. Dr. P. Fabian Indiana University Lehrstuhl für Bioklimatologie School of Public und Immissionsforschung and Environmental Affairs der Universität München Bloomington, IN 47405, USA Hohenbachernstraße 22 [email protected] 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany Dr.T.A.Kassim Dr.H.Fiedler Department of Civil Scientific Affairs Office and Environmental Engineering UNEP Chemicals College of Science and Engineering 11–13, chemin des Anémones Seattle University 1219 Châteleine (GE), Switzerland 901 12th Avenue hfi[email protected] Seattle, WA98122-1090, USA [email protected] Prof. Dr. H. Frank Prof. Dr. M. A. K. Khalil Lehrstuhl für Umwelttechnik Department of Physics und Ökotoxikologie Portland State University Universität Bayreuth Science Building II, Room 410 Postfach 10 12 51 P.O. Box 751 95440 Bayreuth, Germany Portland, OR 97207-0751, USA [email protected] VI Prof. Dr. D. Mackay Prof.Dr.Dr.H.Parlar Department of Chemical Engineering Institut für Lebensmitteltechnologie and Applied Chemistry und Analytische Chemie University of Toronto Technische Universität München Toronto, ON, M5S 1A4, Canada 85350 Freising-Weihenstephan, Germany Prof. Dr. A. H. Neilson Prof. Dr. S. H. Safe Swedish Environmental Research Institute Department of Veterinary P.O. Box 21060 Physiology and Pharmacology 10031 Stockholm, Sweden College of Veterinary Medicine [email protected] Texas A & M Universit y College Station, TX 77843-4466, USA Prof. Dr. J. Paasivirta [email protected] Department of Chemistry University of Jyväskylä Prof.P.J.Wangersky Survontie 9 University of Victoria P.O. Box 3 5 Centre for Earth and Ocean Research 40351 Jyväskylä, Finland P.O. Box 1700 Victoria, BC, V8W 3P6, Canada [email protected] The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Also Available Electronically For all customers who have a standing order to The Handbook of Environmen- talChemistry,weoffertheelectronicversionviaSpringerLinkfreeofcharge. Please contact your librarian who can receive a password or free access to the full articles by registering at: springerlink.com If you do not have a subscription, you can still view the tables of contents of the volumes and the abstract of each article by going to the SpringerLink Home- page, clicking on “Browse by Online Libraries”, then “Chemical Sciences”, and finally choose The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. You will find information about the – Editorial Board –AimsandScope – Instructions for Authors –SampleContribution at springer.com using the search function. Preface Environmental Chemistry is a relatively young science. Interest in this subject, however, is growing very rapidly and, although no agreement has been reached as yet about the exact content and limits of this interdisciplinary discipline, there appears to be increasing interest in seeing environmental topics which are based on chemistry embodied in this subject. One of the first objectives of Environmental Chemistry must be the study of the environment and of natural chemical processes which occur in the environment. A major purpose of this series on Environmental Chemistry, therefore, is to present a reasonably uniform view of various aspects of the chemistry of the environment and chemical reactions occurring in the environment. The industrial activities of man have given a new dimension to Environ- mental Chemistry. We have now synthesized and described over five million chemical compounds and chemical industry produces about hundred and fifty million tons of synthetic chemicals annually. We ship billions of tons of oil per year and through mining operations and other geophysical modifications, large quantities of inorganic and organic materials are released from