Tense & Aspect Markers in African American English by Candice L. Scott A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Linguistics) in The University of Michigan 2016 Doctoral Committee: Professor Marlyse Baptista, Chair Professor Lisa Green, University of Massachusetts Professor Acrisio M. Pires Associate Professor Teresa L. Satterfield Professor Sarah G. Thomason Associate Professor Suzanne E. Wagner, Michigan State University Table of Contents List of Tables .................................................................................................................................. v Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 6 2.1. Camouflaging ....................................................................................................................... 7 2.2. Methodological limitations ................................................................................................ 10 2.3. Approach used for this dissertation.................................................................................... 12 2.3.1. What is grammaticalization?....................................................................................... 12 2.3.2. Grammaticalization frameworks ................................................................................. 13 2.3.3. Summary of grammaticalization theories and application .......................................... 22 2.4. Evolution of strategies for expressing futurity................................................................... 23 2.4.1. Present tense................................................................................................................ 23 2.4.2. Progressive .................................................................................................................. 24 2.4.3. Prospective forms........................................................................................................ 24 2.4.4. Will and Shall .............................................................................................................. 26 2.4.5. Invariant be ................................................................................................................. 26 2.4.6. Summary: Forms to be analyzed in this study ............................................................ 27 2.5. Evolution of present perfect markers ................................................................................. 27 2.5.1. Strategies for expressing the present perfect .............................................................. 27 2.5.2. Forms to be excluded .................................................................................................. 29 2.5.3. Summary: Forms to be analyzed in this study ............................................................ 29 Chapter 3: Methodology ............................................................................................................... 30 3.1. Corpus linguistics............................................................................................................... 30 3.1.1. Background ................................................................................................................. 30 3.1.2. Use .............................................................................................................................. 31 3.2. Creating my corpus ............................................................................................................ 32 3.2.1. Narrowing in on the verbal system of AAE................................................................ 32 3.2.2. Data collection ............................................................................................................ 34 3.2.3. Description of sites and speakers ................................................................................ 36 Chapter 4: Habitual aspect marker STAY .................................................................................... 39 4.1. Background ........................................................................................................................ 39 4.2. My findings regarding STAY ............................................................................................ 40 4.2.1. STAY with predicate adjectives / nominals................................................................ 40 4.2.2. STAY with existential sentences: ............................................................................... 41 4.2.3. STAY in other tenses .................................................................................................. 42 ii 4.2.4. STAY with verbs ........................................................................................................ 42 4.2.5. Evolution of the aspect marker stay ............................................................................ 43 4.2.6. Summary of properties of stay .................................................................................... 46 Chapter 5: Continuative aspect marker steady.............................................................................. 48 5.1. Background ........................................................................................................................ 48 5.2. My findings regarding steady ............................................................................................ 53 5.2.1. Steady with verbs in the present progressive .............................................................. 53 5.2.2. Steady with verbs in the present tense ........................................................................ 54 5.2.3. Steady with verbs in the past tense ............................................................................. 54 5.2.4. Steady with stative verbs ............................................................................................. 55 5.2.5. Steady with prepositional phrases ............................................................................... 57 5.2.6. Steady with adjectives ................................................................................................. 57 5.2.7. Evolution of the aspect marker steady ........................................................................ 58 5.2.8. Summary of properties of steady ................................................................................ 59 Chapter 6: Markers of indignation ................................................................................................ 60 Chapter 7: Future Markers ............................................................................................................ 64 7.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 64 7.2. The variable context: included and excluded tokens ......................................................... 65 7.2.1. Gnomics ...................................................................................................................... 66 7.2.2. Habituals ..................................................................................................................... 67 7.2.3. Conditionals ................................................................................................................ 67 7.2.4. Imperatives .................................................................................................................. 68 7.2.5. Invitations ................................................................................................................... 69 7.2.6. Movement ................................................................................................................... 69 7.3. Coding ................................................................................................................................ 69 7.3.1. External factors ........................................................................................................... 70 7.3.2. Internal factors ............................................................................................................ 71 7.4. Results ................................................................................................................................ 76 7.4.1. Distribution analysis ................................................................................................... 76 7.5. Summary ............................................................................................................................ 87 Chapter 8: Perfect Markers ........................................................................................................... 89 8.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 89 8.2. Semantic uses of the perfect .............................................................................................. 90 8.2.1. Perfect of result ........................................................................................................... 90 8.2.2. Experiential perfect ..................................................................................................... 91 8.2.3. Perfect of persistent situation