Film Distribution in the Age of the Internet: East Asian Cinema in the UK Virginia Crisp Goldsmiths College, University of London for the degree of PhD in Media and Communications 1 I hereby declare that the work presented herein is entirely my own ………………………….. Virginia Crisp, April, 2012 2 Acknowledgements Special thanks go to my supervisor, Professor Chris Berry, for all of his support through the process of developing this thesis. Heartfelt thanks go to my Mum for reading extracts of my work and for believing in me throughout my studies. I would like to thank all of my colleagues at Middlesex University, but particular thanks go to Sarah Baker, James Graham and Ben Little for their endless encouragement. Thanks also go to Andy Goffey, Jo Littler and Farah Mendlesohn, who have all supported my research in different ways. I would also like to give a special mention to Jim Pipkin, Pam Pipkin, Tony Murphy, Sue Murphy and Bunny Veglio for listening to, and encouraging, the bizarre ideas of an irritating child. I would particularly like to thank Gavin, without his love, patience and support I would never have got this far. The final thesis is dedicated to my parents. 3 Abstract This thesis provides an integrated analysis of formal and informal distribution networks for East Asian Cinema in the UK through interviews and ethnographic-style research. It examines what motivates and shapes the acquisition decisions of distributors in these contexts and how these motivations might conflict, interact with, or complement one another. Whilst existing literature has focused on formal distribution and ‘piracy’ as distinct phenomena, this thesis considers both in conjunction with each other and also uncovers the distinct social contexts of each environment. Through anti-piracy discourse, the positions and priorities of ‘pirates’ and the ‘industry’ are repeatedly constructed as unequivocally distinct and oppositional. However, on the basis of my research, I argue that these seemingly opposed groups -- professional distributors and filesharers -- are more similar than we might imagine. The connections between the online and offline distributors can be noted in a number of ways. First, the actions of distributors within formal and informal networks involve complex social and cultural interactions rather than purely economic considerations. Second, an individual’s position in a socially imagined ‘knowledge community’ is perceived to be more significant than economic interest in motivating the activities of distributors within both formal and informal channels. Third, by applying Molteni and Ordanini’s principle of socio-network effects, I argue that distributors online and offline are engaged in a symbiotic relationship where each party can be said to benefit socially and culturally, if not necessarily economically, from the actions of each other. Overall, this thesis argues that social contexts of distribution in formal and informal settings shape the distribution process. Indeed, rather than just representing the movement of an economic commodity, the act of film distribution also mediates and facilitates the social and professional relationships of distributors across both sectors. 4 Table of Contents List of Figures ..................................................................................................... 5 1. Introduction..................................................................................................... 6 2. Literature Review......................................................................................... 23 3. Methodology................................................................................................. 56 4. The ‘Imagined’ East Asian Film Fan Community.................................... 74 5. Formal Networks of Distribution: Tartan and Third Window Films ..... 120 6. Informal Distribution Networks: Sharing in the Community ................. 154 7. ‘I’ll Scratch your Back…’: Symbiotic Relationships............................... 177 8. Conclusion .................................................................................................. 199 Appendices ..................................................................................................... 219 List of Figures Figure 1. Member Categorisation by Total Forum Posts.…………………………….…..97 Figure 2. Member Categorisation by Total Forum Posts (excluding lurkers)……..……98 Figure 3. Member Categorisation by Total Forum Posts (excluding lurkers) as a Proportion of Total Membership………………………..…………………………..….……99 Figure 4. The Online Distribution Cycle……………………………………………..….….167 5 1. Introduction This thesis asks how both formal and informal distribution networks for East Asian1 films in the UK function and interact. The basis for such an examination is the proposition that the social and cultural context of ‘film’ must be examined in conjunction with the economic in order to produce a holistic understanding of how films circulate transnationally. To examine the dissemination of East Asian film in the UK as a case study two UK distribution companies that specialise in East Asian films and two filesharing forums that are similarly dedicated to circulating East Asian cinema were selected for analysis. Interviews and ethnographic-style online research facilitated the examination of two more focused questions. First, what motivates and shapes the acquisition decisions of distributors in both formal and informal contexts? Second, in what manner, if any, can the motivations of both parties be seen to conflict, interact, or complement one another? Although these two parties have such a dominant role in the dissemination of film texts and are inextricably connected, there is a lack of research in studies of film distribution and/or piracy that directly examines the nature of the relationship between them. The existing literature on distribution also tends to focus on the dominance of Hollywood and there is a need for more work on the role of ‘independent’ distribution networks in general. Furthermore, previous studies of filesharing have been too narrow. They have been particularly preoccupied with establishing whether filesharing is damaging or beneficial to the industry. I argue that such a focus assumes that filesharing is in some manner a homogenous activity underpinned by a unified set of motivations, and that it results in a similarly predictable set of outcomes. The field is also weighted toward studies that attempt to establish what motivates filesharers so that they can be forced or persuaded to halt their activities.2 These dual preoccupations dominate the discussion, leaving a need for more work on the social and cultural aspects of filesharing, which have hitherto been examined in only a few interesting, but regrettably scarce, studies.3 Finally, many academic and popular discussions surrounding digital piracy focus on the 1 The term East Asian cinema is used within this thesis to describe films originating from Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Korea and Japan. Both the autonomous and professional distributors tend to use the term Asian cinema to describe the films from these nations. However, for the sake of clarity and to differentiate such films from those produced in other Asian countries such as India and Pakistan, the term East Asian film in used within this thesis. 2 For example see Jeffrey S. Podoshen, “Why Take Tunes? An Exploratory Multinational Look at Student Downloading,” Journal of Internet Commerce 7, no. 2 (2008); Twila Wingrove, Angela L. Korpas and Victoria Weisz, “Why Were Millions of People not Obeying the Law?: Motivational Influences on Non-compliance with the Law in the Case of Music Piracy,” Psychology, Crime and Law, 17, no. 3 (2011): 1. 3 For example see Mark Cenite, Michelle Wanzheng Wang, Chong Peiwen and Germaine Shimin Chan, “More Than Just Free Content: Motivations of Peer-to-Peer File Sharers,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 33 (2009); Ian Condry, “Cultures of Music Piracy: An Ethnographic Comparison of the US and Japan," International Journal of Cultural Studies 7, no. 3 (2004). 6 supposedly antagonistic relationship between filesharers and the cultural industries; within such discourse the positions and priorities of each group are repeatedly constructed as unequivocally distinct and oppositional. This thesis seeks to go beyond such a narrow and polarised discussion by questioning whether this construction is an accurate portrayal of either the filesharers or the professionals. In response to the questions that form the backbone of this thesis, I propose that these seemingly oppositional groups, professional distributors and filesharers, are more similar than we might imagine, and furthermore, are engaged in a symbiotic relationship. The connections between the online and offline distributors can be noted in a number of ways. First, the actions of distributors within formal and informal networks involve complex social and cultural interactions rather than purely economic considerations (as discussed in chapters five and six). Second, an individual’s position in a socially imagined4 ‘knowledge community’5 is more significant than economic interest in motivating the activities of distributors within both formal and informal channels. Whilst the professionals tend to confine their understanding of their ‘community’ to only include others within the film industry (as demonstrated in chapter five), the online distributors broaden their understanding so their community is able to transcend the subscribed