A Dissertation entitled Human Resource Professionals and Workplace Bullying: A Systems Approach to Performance Improvement Intervention in Criminal Justice Agencies by Matthew E. Ritzman Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Curriculum and Instruction _________________________________________ Berhane Teclehaimanot, Ph.D., Committee Chair _________________________________________ Gregory Stone, Ph.D., Committee Member _________________________________________ Lisa Kovach, Ph.D., Committee Member _________________________________________ Robert Sullivan, Ph.D., Committee Member _________________________________________ Dr. Patricia R. Komuniecki, Dean College of Graduate Studies The University of Toledo December 2014 Copyright 2014, Matthew E. Ritzman This document is copyrighted material. Under copyright law, no parts of this document may be reproduced without the expressed permission of the author. An Abstract of Human Resource Professionals and Workplace Bullying: A Systems Approach to Performance Improvement Intervention in Criminal Justice Agencies by Matthew E. Ritzman Submitted to the Graduate Faculty as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in Curriculum and Instruction The University of Toledo December 2014 Workplace bullying is a significant problem carrying wide-ranging consequences in organizations of various sizes and in a variety of work environments. Research suggests ten to twenty percent of employees are exposed to workplace bullying annually. A review of scholarly literature established workplace bullying as a problem impacting employee and organizational performance, with many researchers suggesting human resource professionals should be integral in addressing workplace bullying in organizations. This study utilized the central tenets of human performance technology, specifically systems theory, to focus on the organizational subsystem of human resources as it relates to preventing, identifying, and addressing workplace bullying. There were three identified purposes to this study. The first purpose of the study was to provide a valid measure of workplace bullying reporting from the perspective of the human resource professional. The second purpose of the study was to take an occupation-specific approach to investigate if employees in correctional organizations report workplace bullying behavior to their organization through human resource professionals at a different rate than in other fields of employment. The third purpose of the study was to investigate if correctional organizations are utilizing performance iii improvement interventions discussed in current scholarly literature to address workplace bullying. Results indicated human resources professionals in this survey have a different perspective on workplace bullying as compared to those considered in the comparison study. Further, correctional organizations are not widely using performance improvement interventions to address workplace bullying. The Rasch Mathematical Model was used to evaluate the research instrument. The Rasch analysis suggested the research instrument could be revised for improved functionality. iv I would like to dedicate this study to my mother, Sharon. Her commitment to her children and encouragement to pursue our goals through education drove me to pursue this degree. I would not have been able to overcome the adversity and obstacles presented during the dissertation process without the example of perseverance she has provided throughout my life. Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of my colleagues, fellow students, friends, and family. I will forever be grateful to those people who provided me a sounding board for ideas, support through the set-backs, and sound advice throughout the dissertation process. I must thank my brother, Glenn, for his consistent encouragement. I must also thank Dr. Terry Johnson with whom I spent countless hours of class and personal time working on our respective coursework and dissertations. I must also individually thank each member of my dissertation committee for their time, work, and encouragement. To Dr. Berhane Teclehaimanot, for his helpful feedback and advice during this project, and throughout my graduate study. I am thankful he was willing to take me on as an advisee and provide direction to this project. To Dr. Robert Sullivan, for his counsel, encouragement, and patience during my seven years of graduate study. Dr. Sullivan is a testament to what a professor and advisor should be. His effort and devotion to his students is unparalleled. I hope retirement is as good to you as you have been to your students. To Dr. Lisa Kovach, for her expertise in psychology and workplace bullying. Her contribution to the development of this study was critical. Her encouragement during the most challenging periods of the dissertation process gave me the resolve to continue when I was not sure I could. To Dr. Gregory Stone, for his time and expertise in research methodology. His critical thinking and pragmatic approach to research design gave this study direction. His support, calm, and encouragement were critical to the completion of this project. vi Table of Contents Abstract iii Acknowledgements vi Table of Contents vii List of Tables xiv List of Figures xv I. Introduction 1 A. Introduction 1 B. Statement of the Problem 4 a. Research Instrument 4 b. Occupation-Specific Approach to Workplace Bullying Research 4 c. Performance Improvement Interventions 6 C. Purpose of the Study 4 D. Research Questions 9 E. Operational Definitions 9 F. Delimitation 12 II. Literature Review 13 A. Historical Background 13 a. History of Workplace Bullying Research 13 b. Different Terms Used to Describe Negative Workplace Behavior 15 c. Occupational Specific Approach to Workplace Bullying Research 16 d. Workplace Bullying Within Correctional Settings 18 B. Workplace Bullying Defined 20 vii a. Overview 20 b. Frequency 21 c. Duration of Exposure 23 d. Power Disparity 24 e. Intent and Perception 25 C. Workplace Bullying Tactics 26 a. Overview 26 b. Bullying Behaviors 27 c. Threats to the Target’s Professional Status 29 d. Overworking a Bullying Target 31 e. Isolation 31 f. Threats to the Target’s Personal Standing 32 g. Destabilization 32 D. Workplace Bullying and Performance 33 a. Overview 33 b. Personal Outcomes of Bullying Targets 34 c. Impact on Witnesses of Bullying Behavior 35 d. Individual Work Performance 36 e. Organizational Performance 37 E. Cost of Workplace Bullying 39 F. Prevalence of Workplace Bullying 41 a. Overview 41 b. Prevalence Rates 42 viii c. Research Methods 44 d. Self-Report Method 45 e. Operational Method 46 f. Reporting Time 47 g. Application in Literature 48 h. Application in Study 49 G. Workplace Bullying and Human Resources 51 a. Overview 51 b. Role of the Human Resource Professional 52 c. Perception in Addressing Workplace Bullying 54 H. Human Resources and Performance Improvement Interventions 56 a. Overview 56 b. Developing Understanding 57 c. Workplace Bullying Policy 57 d. Workplace Bullying Training 59 e. Recruiting and Selection 60 f. Performance Management 61 g. Communication 62 h. Addressing Personnel Issues 63 I. Human Performance Technology 64 a. Overview 64 b. Human Performance Technology Defined 65 c. Underlying Principles 67 ix i. Focus on Results 67 ii. Systems Theory 67 iii. Add Value 68 iv. Establishes Partnerships 68 III. Methodology 69 A. Overview 69 B. Significance of the Study 70 C. Conceptual Framework 72 D. Research Question 74 E. Research Design and Methods 74 a. Research Sample 74 b. Researcher’s Role 75 c. Research Instrument 75 d. Data Collection 78 F. Data Analysis 80 a. Research Question One 80 b. Research Question Two 81 c. Research Question Four 84 d. Rasch Model 85 e. Research Question Three 86 i. Separation 86 ii. Reliability 87 iii. Item Difficulty 87 x iv. Person Ability 88 v. Fit 88 vi. Overview 88 G. Timeline 89 IV. Data Analysis and Results 90 90 A. Survey Qualifying Question – Age 91 B. Survey Qualifying Question – Job Responsibilities 92 C. Research Question One 94 a. Work-related bullying 94 b. Person-related bullying 101 c. Physically intimidating bullying 109 D. Research Question Two 111 E. Research Question Four 114 a. Characteristics of Workplace Bullying Policies 115 b. Organizational Measures Against Workplace Bullying 123 c. Knowledge-Based Interventions to Address Workplace Bullying 128 d. Policy Adoptions 132 F. Research Question Three 136 a. Negative Acts Questionnaire for HR Professionals – Questions 1 through 22 136 i. Reliability and Separation 138 ii. Summary of Category Structure 138 xi iii. Reliability and Separation Recalculated 139 iv. Construct Key Form 141 v. Item Statistics 141 b. Negative Acts Questionnaire for HR Professionals – Questions 28, 31, 32, 33, and 34 143 i. Reliability and Separation 143 ii. Summary of Category Structure 144 iii. Construct Key Form 145 iv. Item Statistics 146 V. Discussion 147 A. Research Questions 148 B. Summary of Methods 149 C. Summary and Discussion 150 a. Overview 150 b. Research Question 1 152 i. Work-related bullying 153 ii. Person-related bullying 156 iii. Physically intimidating bullying 158 c. Research Question 2 159 d. Research Question 3 163 i. Survey Items 1 through 22 164 ii. Survey Items 28, 31, 32, 33, and 34 167 e. Research Question 4 168 xii i. Addressing Workplace Bullying 170 ii. Workplace Bullying Policy 171 iii. Workplace