Violent video games and social behaviour Morgan James Tear Bachelor of Psychological Science (Honors) A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2015 School of Psychology Abstract There is public and scientific concern surrounding violent content in interactive video games. After several decades of experimental research, there is some evidence that violent content in media can influence people to behave in predictable, anti-social ways. These include increased hostile attributions, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behaviour. There has been comparatively little research, however, on how prosocial behaviour (e.g. helping behaviour) is affected by violent media. Thus, the present thesis examined the hypothesis that, to the extent that violent video games can increase anti-social behaviour, they should similarly decrease prosocial behaviour. The investigation is grounded in contemporary theories of aggression, and draws from literature on social priming, economic games, and dehumanisation. The experiments presented in Chapter 2 explore reasons for why a recent study found, un-intuitively, that violent video games have no effect on prosocial behaviour. I tried to demonstrate a violent video game effect using a traditional media exposure paradigm. I also report on the role of context in these paradigms, and the subsequent effect that context has on behaviour measures. Finally, I report a direct replication attempt of past research that suggested video game content can influence prosocial behaviour. In Chapter 3, I tested the assumption that increasing violent content has an incremental effect on social behaviour. I used games with differing levels of violent content (non-violent, violent, and ultra-violent) and examined their impact on prosocial behaviour. This experiment extended on those reported in Chapter 2 by several means: (1) I increased the strength of violent content manipulation; (2) I used multiple measures of prosocial behaviour; and (3) I recruited a larger sample. Finally, Chapter 4 tests whether certain preconditions need to be met for violent video games to affect prosocial behaviour. In this experiment, I tested whether participants need to be in a hostile cognitive state in order for violent video games to influence their behaviour. I paired violent video gameplay with a hostile semantic prime and observed whether participants were more or less likely to help another. The results of these experiments suggest that the effect of violent video games on prosocial behaviour is, at most, a small effect, and that corresponding public concern should be minimal. These findings are, unfortunately, at odds with most prevalent theories of media effects. A key issue with prevalent media effects theories, however, is that they assume a content-driven view of media influence: that is, that media affect users in reliable and ii predictable ways. What seems more likely is that, while media can influence behaviour, users are active shapers of their media experience. A user-driven view of media influence would examine motivations for using media (violent content or not), the social benefits of gaming with others (through violent media or not), and the satisfaction of needs for competence and autonomy (via skill development in violent games or not). iii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iv Publications during candidature Peer-reviewed papers Tear, M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2014). Video games and prosocial behavior: A study of the effects of non-violent, violent and ultra-violent gameplay. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 8-13. Tear, M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2013). Failure to demonstrate that playing violent video games diminishes prosocial behavior, PLoS One, 8(7). Conference abstracts Tear M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2014). Further failures to demonstrate violent video game effects: Extending Tear & Nielsen (2013). Proceedings of the 15th Annual Meeting of The Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP). Austin, TX: 14-16 February. Tear, M. J., & Greenaway, K. (2013). Misattributing arousal disrupts the violent video game effect. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Society of Australasian Social Psychologists (SASP). Cairns, Australia: 11-13 April. Tear, M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2013). Violent video games and prosocial behavior: Important implications for the applied value of violent video game research. Proceedings of the 14th Annual Meeting of The Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP). New Orleans, LA: 17-19 January Tear, M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2012). The priming effect of video games: The sensitivity of prosocial measures to the characteristics of contemporary video games. Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Society of Australasian Social Psychologists (SASP). Adelaide, Australia: 12-14 April. Tear, M. J. (2011). Video games and aggression: The measurement problem. Presented at the School of Psychology RHD Day. Brisbane, Australia: 16 September. v Publications included in this thesis Tear, M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2014). Video games and prosocial behavior: A study of the effects of non-violent, violent and ultra-violent gameplay. Computers in Human Behavior, 41, 8-13. – Incorporated as Chapter 3. Contributor Statement of contribution Author 1 (Candidate) Designed experiments (60%) Collected data (100%) Conducted data analysis (100%) Wrote the paper (80%) Author 2 Designed experiments (40%) Wrote and edited paper (20%) Tear, M. J., & Nielsen, M. (2013). Failure to demonstrate that playing violent video games diminishes prosocial behavior, PLoS One, 8(7). – Incorporated as Chapter 2. Contributor Statement of contribution Author 1 (Candidate) Designed experiments (60%) Collected data (100%) Conducted data analysis (100%) Wrote the paper (80%) Author 2 Designed experiments (40%) Wrote and edited paper (20%) vi Contributions by others to the thesis My primary advisor, Associate Professor Mark Nielsen, provided guidance on theory, study design, and data analysis, and reviewed and commented on the thesis and associated manuscript. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None. vii Acknowledgements It’s a strange feeling to finally submit a thesis and I’m surely not the same person that I was when I started. To say this is my thesis alone seems wrong and I’m hugely indebted to a great many people. Mark, thanks to you. When we first met about me coming on board as your student I don’t think either of us had much of an idea of what we were getting ourselves into. Yet, your guidance helped me to navigate the minefield of a hotly contested literature. Your encouragement helped me see value in my work where I saw none, and I think that might be the one thing I am most grateful for. I hope to show similar support for my own students one day. To Jason: Thanks for your mentorship these past few years. I rarely read for pleasure before my PhD but now I’m rarely without a book to read (often one personally recommended by you). The skillset I’ve learned from teaching your courses is invaluable and I often mutter the mantra WWJD - what would Jason do? My PhD was funded by the Australian Federal Government via an Australian Postgraduate Award. I’d like to thank the School of Psychology at UQ, the Society of Australasian Social Psychologists, and the Society for Personality and Social Psychology for funding my travel and awarding my work. I often find myself in awe at the amazing opportunities I have had to travel the world and meet remarkable scientists, and for that I am extremely thankful. To my office mates - Joyce Vromen, Theresa Scott, Kirsten Way, Matthew Thompson, Tamara Butler, and Morgana Lizzio-Wilson: thanks for putting up with my cycling clothes. Only one of you ever said anything about them but, on reflection, I’m sure the rest of you were probably just being polite. Joking aside, you’ve been a terribly tolerant bunch and I’ll miss s318. To my ‘thesis support crew’ - Zan, Nerisa, & Elise: you guys were amazing on the final stretch. viii To the tea-room - Nonie Finlayson, Mark Wetton, Kate Storrs, Rohan Kapitany, Dustin Venini, Rachel Searston, Ruben Laukkonen, Melanie McKenzie, Wen Wu: thanks for the arguments, you guys are alright. To William Harrison, Matthew Thompson, and James D. Retell: no-one has challenged me more than you guys. To my family, Ruth, Simon, Callum, and Emma: thank you for your love, encouragement, and support – making you guys proud is one of the greatest feelings in the world Priscila: no-one has endured more than you.