Through an Indigenous Lens: Understanding Indigenous Masculinity and Street Gang Involvement A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate Studies and Resarch in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Native Studies University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan By Robert D. Henry © Copyright Robert Henry, March 2015. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this dissertation titled Through an Indigenous Lens: Understanding Indigenous Masculinity and Street Gang Involvement in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professors who supervised my dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department of Sociology or the Dean of the College in which my dissertation work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my dissertation. Requests for permission to copy or to make other uses of materials in this dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of Native Studies University of Saskatchewan 142 Kirk Hall, 117 Science Place S7N 5C8 Saskatoon, SK Canada i ABSTRACT Colonization has had a detrimental impact on Indigenous peoples and communities. Colonization has and continues to remove Indigenous peoples from full participation in Canadian society, which has forced some Indigenous men to search out other avenues in order to gain power, respect, and economic capital to survive. It is the direct result of colonial-shaped socio-political histories and ideologies that have led to the creation and proliferation of urban Indigenous street gangs. This dissertation examines 16 Indigenous male ex-gang members and their perceptions of masculinity, identity, and how this is supported through their involvement within a street gang. Relational accountability was the methodology utilized to engage and support the men through the course of the research process. It was from the focal point of relational accountability that photovoice methods could be modified to accommodate the lived realities of the men during the time of the study. Overall, fifteen individuals participated in the study, with nine engaging in photovoice methods to document and explain how they understood and practiced masculinity. The nine men, who completed photovoice, had their photographs and narratives brought together to create Brighter Days Ahead, to give back to the organization STR8 UP and help inform the broader community about the multiple issues that Indigenous youth face in the Canadian Prairies. The role of masculinity was integral for the men’s inclusion into street gangs. Connell’s concept of hegemonic masculinity and Bourdieu’s concept of habitus helped to create a framework to understand why some Indigenous men see street gangs as a viable option to practice masculinity. By examining the men’s histories, with a focus on their relationships’ with parents, siblings, family, peers, and social institutions, a more robust understanding the linkages to street gang involvement is created. The street gang epitomized the ideal “man”— tough, independent, emotion-less, and powerful, as it were these individual’s whom they would target for their recruitment. Analysis of the men’s narratives and photographs revealed how violence and trauma impacted their notions of maleness. It was through violent and traumatic experiences that the men would create a “mask” that they would wear to help them engage in hyper-violent behaviours within multiple fields and protect them from further victimization. This study directs our attention to focus future research on: 1) the impacts of colonization as both a historical and contemporary factor in the lives of Indigenous peoples; 2) the importance of relational accountability within the research process; 3) the potential of photovoice methods in expanding street gangs research; and 4) the need for gang prevention and intervention programming to focus on the concept of masculinity in order to deter gang involvement amongst Indigenous males and build healthier stronger communities. ii DEDICATION I want to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to the men who were brave enough to share their narratives and photographs within this dissertation. I have learnt more from you than I could ever repay or show. Thank you, and I wish all of you the best in the future. I make this dedication to: Adam, Baldhead, Bones, Bonks, Clayton, Dale, Dave, Dez, Dwayne, Emil, James, Kinuis, Mat, Mathias, and Stacey. I would also like to thank Dave and Shielagh for their help in transporting the men to and from places. To Father André, Stan, and STR8 UP for their guidance and support. I am privileged to have met you and hope that others may be able to learn from you and what you all have to share. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank: My advisors, committee members, and committee Chairs: My supervisor, Dr. Caroline Tait for the guidance, support, and excellent mentorship that she shared with me throughout the PhD process. I am very grateful for the freedom and time that she devoted which allowed me to grow as a researcher. I am indebted to her for the support and friendship she has given over the years. To my committee members, Drs. Verna St. Denis, Carolyn Brooks, Rob Innes, and Ron Laliberte thank you for your dedication, effort, and commitment in supporting me throughout the process. Your insights and commentary have pushed my thinking, and I am forever grateful. To external examiner ________________, thank you for your thoughts and insights. In addition, I thank all those who have opened their doors to me over the years to talk about my research. Funding organizations and community stakeholders: This research was made possible through the Graduate Research Scholarship from the Indigenous Peoples Health Research Centre (IPHRC). Thank you Dr. Episkenew for taking a chance on me, without this support I would not be where I am today. University colleagues and friends: My colleagues, grad students, and friends from the University of Saskatchewan for listening and providing insightful feedback, support, and encouragement. To the Native Studies department faculty who opened their doors to me whenever I had a question or needed to talk, thank you very much. Family and friends: I am deeply indebted to Larry (father), Rhonda (mother), brothers Brett and Ryan and their families for the support and teasing which has kept me grounded. It has been a long process and I thank you for the unwavering support over the years. A special thanks to the Rogal family—Pat, Donna, Myron and family, Brendan and family, and Maria and Rylan for your support and patience over the years. Lifelong friends: My continuous support system of friends and cousins: Kelly, Morgan, Kevin, Jade, Laren, Vern, Kelsa, Adam, Al, Brad, Andrew, Keeley, members of the SSC, and the “lake crew”. Thank you for always being there and helping me to “get away” from work every now and then. And, my family My daughter Brielle and wife Julie for putting up with me over the years. You have brought me so much laughter, joy, support, and love, which have helped me continue on when times were tough. Brielle your loving, energetic, and inquisitive nature, and Julie your unwavering support have allowed me the opportunity to grow and become the husband and father I am today. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PERMISSION TO USE.......................................................................................................i ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ii DEDICATION....................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................................................................v CHAPTER 1 Introduction....................................................................................................1 1.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................1 1.1 Dissertation Landscape..................................................................................................6 1.2 Intentions of Research....................................................................................................8 1.3 The Proverbial Definition of the Street Gang..............................................................11 1.3.1 Defining Gangs as Criminal......................................................................... 14 1.4 Chapter overview........................................................................................................ 18 CHAPTER 2 History of American Street Gangs and Theories.........................................26 2.0 Introduction..................................................................................................................26