ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE CONSUMPTION OF TOBACCO AND COFFEE IN OTTOMAN ARABIA by Aimee C. Bouzigard May 2010 Under the Direction of BenJamin A. Saidel, PhD Chair: Linda D. Wolfe, PhD MaJor Department: Anthropology This thesis is to examine the nature of the archaeological evidence for coffee and tobacco consumption in Arabia during the Ottoman period (sixteenth through the early twentieth centuries). The data used in this study are culled from survey proJects carried out in Saudi Arabia during the Comprehensive Survey Program (1976 – 1981). I have refined the dates of the tobacco pipes (chibouks), which will allow for a finer grain chronology for the spread of coffee and tobacco based on the material culture. Additionally, pottery parallels used in conJunction with the tobacco pipe material will aid in refining the chronology for Ottoman-period sites in northern Arabia. A large portion of this proJect also involves an evaluation of the methodological issues facing researchers who are attempting to study Ottoman-period components in the Middle East, as revealed in the gross survey reports from Saudi Arabia. A final facet of this proJect is to draw a link between the artifacts associated with coffee and tobacco consumption, and the types of sites where they are found. By distinguishing the site types associated with coffee and tobacco through the analysis of archaeological finds, we can access a clearer picture of the distribution of those artifacts in Arabia that are associated with coffee drinking and tobacco smoking in order to tell where and whom was engaging in these activities. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE CONSUMPTION OF TOBACCO AND COFFEE IN OTTOMAN ARABIA A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Anthropology East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree Master of Arts in Anthropology by Aimee C. Bouzigard May 2010 ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE CONSUMPTION OF TOBACCO AND COFFEE IN OTTOMAN ARABIA by Aimee C. Bouzigard APPROVED BY: DIRECTOR OF THESIS:_______________________________________________________________________________ (BenJamin A. Saidel, PhD) COMMITTEE MEMBER:______________________________________________________________________________ (Charles R. Ewen, PhD) COMMITTEE MEMBER:______________________________________________________________________________ (Robert L. Bunger, PhD) COMMITTEE MEMBER:______________________________________________________________________________ (Mona L. Russell, PhD) CHAIR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY:________________________________________________________________________________ (Linda D. Wolfe, PhD) DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL:______________________________________________________________________________________________ (Paul J. Gemperline, PhD) TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS………………………………………………………………....... viii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………. 1 Purpose of Study……………………..…………………………………………………………………... 1 Chronological Terminology………………………………………………………………………….. 2 Hypotheses…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 3 History of the Arabian Peninsula from the Sixteenth through the Early Twentieth Centuries, The Ottoman Period…………………………………………………… 3 Overview of Ottoman Archaeology in the Middle East…………………………………… 8 Saudi Arabian Attitudes Towards Ottoman Archaeology………………………………. 10 CHAPTER 2: HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNATURE OF COFFEE AND TOBACCO CONSUMPTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST IN THE SIXTEENTH THROUGH THE EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURIES……………………………………………………………….. 13 Introduction of Tobacco to the Middle East…………………………………………………. 13 The Availability of Tobacco and Pipes in Arabia…………………………………………… 16 Archaeology and the Consumption of Tobacco…………………………………………….. 18 Early styles of pipe-bowls in the seventeenth century……………………….. 24 The variety of the eighteenth century……………………………………………….. 24 The standardization of the nineteenth century………………………………….. 26 The end of clay tobacco pipes in the twentieth century……………………… 26 Introduction of Coffee into the Middle East………………………………………………….. 27 The Availability of Coffee in Arabia……………………………………………………………… 29 Archaeology and the Consumption of Coffee………………………………………………… 31 CHAPTER 3: THE COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY OF SAUDI ARABIA…………………………….. 39 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39 The Comprehensive Survey……………………………………………………………………….. 40 Comments on the Reports from Atlal…………………………………………………………. 49 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………… 51 CHAPTER 4: ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE CONSUMPTION OF TOBACCO AND COFFEE IN OTTOMAN-PERIOD SAUDI ARABIA………………………….. 52 The Assemblage………………………………………………………………………………………… 61 Central and Southwestern Provinces……………………………………………….. 62 206-48…………………………………………………………………………………. 63 210-15…………………………………………………………………………………. 64 210-48 and 210-62……………………………………………………………….. 65 Southwestern Province……………………………………………………………………. 66 217-79…………………………………………………………………………………. 67 Western Province……………………………………………………………………………. 68 210-221……………………………………………………………………………….. 68 Northwestern and Northern Provinces…………………………………………….. 70 204-157 and 205-75……………………………………………………………... 70 Ar-Rowdah North…………………………………………………………………………….. 71 CHAPTER 5: REDATING THE PIPES AND THE PORCELAIN CUPS……………………………... 73 The Dates of Tobacco Pipes Found in Saudi Arabia……………………………………….. 75 The Dates of Coffee Cups Found in Saudi Arabia…………………………………………… 80 CHAPTER 6: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………………… 87 Site Structure………………………………………………………………………………………………. 87 Explanations for the Distribution of Tobacco Pipes and Coffee Cups………………. 91 Role of the environment…………………………………………………………………… 91 Role of the survey methods and recovery…………………………………………. 94 Trafficked trade routes…………………………………………………………………….. 95 Material culture associated with the use of tobacco and coffee imported……………………………………………………………………… 98 Alternative smoking paraphernalia…………………………………………………… 99 Methodological Considerations: Dating by Typology…………………………………… 100 Conclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………... 103 Future Research…………………………………………………………………………………………. 104 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 105 APPENDIX A (copyright forms)…………………….……………………………………………………….. 116 TABLES Table 3.1 Survey methodologies……………………………………………………………………………. 45 Table 4.1 Survey reports containing Ottoman-period artifacts……………………………….. 53 Table 4.2 Tobacco pipes recovered during Comprehensive Survey Program…………… 58 Table 4.3 Coffee cups recovered during Comprehensive Survey Program………………... 60 Table 5.1 Tobacco pipe-bowl parallels and dates……………………………………………………. 76 Table 5.2 Coffee cup parallels and notes………………………………………………………………… 81 ILLUSTRATIONS Fig. 1.1 Map of the Ottoman Empire 1881 – 1912……………………………………………………. 5 Fig. 2.1 The chibouk and the European kaolin pipe………………………………………………….. 20 Fig. 2.2a Parts of the pipe-bowl………………………………………………………………………………. 21 Fig. 2.2b Parts of the pipe-bowl……………………………………………………………………………….. 22 Fig. 2.3 Pipes available in Rosetta during the French occupation of Egypt…………………. 25 Fig. 2.4 Coffee houses (a) Turkish (b) Damascene (c) Arabian………………………………….. 30 Fig. 2.5 Coffee cups…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32 Fig. 3.1 Map of Survey Provinces…………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Fig. 6.1 Map showing the distribution/site types where tobacco pipes and coffee cups were recovered………………………………………………………………... 88 Fig. 6.2 Close-up of sites with tobacco pipes and coffee cups in the Mecca-Taif region………………………………………………………………………………………. 89 Fig. 6.3 Physical map of Saudi Arabia……………………………………………………………………… 92 Fig. 6.4 Saudi Arabia, main regions and cities………………………………………………………….. 93 Fig. 6.5 Map showing the proximity of recovery sites to maJor highways…………………. 94 Fig. 6.6 Pilgrim routes up to the late nineteenth century…………………………………………. 97 Chapter 1: Introduction Purpose of Study This project will determine the nature of the archaeological evidence for coffee and tobacco consumption in Arabia during the Ottoman period (sixteenth through the early twentieth centuries). The data used in this study are culled from survey proJects carried out in Saudi Arabia during the Comprehensive Survey Program (1976 – 1981), whose reports are published in Atlal: The Journal of Saudi Arabian Archaeology. As part of this project, I have refined the dates of the tobacco pipes, which will allow for a finer grain chronology for the spread of coffee and tobacco material culture. Additionally, pottery parallels used in conJunction with the tobacco pipe material will aid in refining the chronology for Ottoman-period sites in northern Arabia. A large portion of this proJect also involves an evaluation of the methodological issues facing researchers who are attempting to study Ottoman-period components in the Middle East, as revealed in the survey reports from Saudi Arabia. A final facet of this proJect is to draw a link between the artifacts associated with coffee and tobacco consumption, and the types of sites where they are found. By attempting to distinguish the site types associated with coffee and tobacco through the analysis of archaeological finds, we can access a clearer picture of the distribution of those artifacts in Arabia that are associated with coffee drinking and tobacco smoking in order to tell where and whom was engaging in these activities. The archaeological evidence could provide interesting insights to Muslim behavior in the Ottoman period with regards to the legality of coffee drinking and tobacco smoking versus the actual, and at some time illegal, use of these substances.