THE NEW YORK AFRICAN BURIAL GROUND SKELETAL BIOLOGY FINAL REPORT VOLUME I Section I: Background of the New York African Burial Ground Project Section II: Origins and Arrival of Africans in Colonial New York Section III: Life and Death in Colonial New York Edited by Michael L. Blakey and Lesley M. Rankin-Hill THE AFRICAN BURIAL GROUND PROJECT HOWARD UNIVERSITY WASHINGTON, DC FOR THE UNITED STATES GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION NORTHEASTERN AND CARIBBEAN REGION December 2004 Howard University’s New York African Burial Ground Project was funded by the U.S. General Services Administration Under Contract No. GS-02P-93-CUC-0071 ╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬╬ Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the editor(s) and/or the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S. General Services Administration or Howard University. ii Table of Contents List of Tables v List of Figures ix Contributors to the Skeletal Biology Component, The African Burial Ground xv Project Acknowledgements xviii Section I: Background of the New York African Burial Ground Project 1 Introduction 2 (M.L. Blakey) 2 History and Comparison of Bioarchaeological Studies in the African 38 Diaspora (M.L. Blakey) 3 Theory: An Ethical Epistemology of Publicly Engaged Biocultural 98 Research (M.L. Blakey) 4 Laboratory Organization, Methods, and Processes 116 (M.L. Blakey, M.E. Mack, K. Shujaa, and R. Watkins) Section II: Origins and Arrival of Africans in Colonial New York 5 Origins of the New York African Burial Ground Population: Biological 150 Evidence of Lineage and Population Affiliation using Genetics, Craniometrics, and Dental Morphology (F.L.C. Jackson, A. Mayes, M.E. Mack, A. Froment, S.O.Y. Keita, R. Kittles, M. George, K.Shujaa, M.L. Blakey, and L .M. Rankin-Hill) 6 Isotopic and Elemental Chemistry of Teeth: Implications for Places of 216 Birth, Forced Migration Patterns, Nutritional Status and Pollution (A. Goodman, J. Jones, J. Reid, M.E. Mack, M.L. Blakey, D. Amarasiriwardena, P. Bruton, and D. Coleman) iii 7 Demographic Overview of the African Burial Ground and Colonial 266 Africans of New York (L.M. Rankin-Hill, M.L. Blakey, J.E. Howson, E. Brown, S.H.H. Carrington, and K. Shujaa) Section III: Life and Death in Colonial New York 8 Childhood Health and Dental Development 306 (M.L. Blakey, M.E. Mack, A.R. Barrett, S.S. Mahoney, and A.H. Goodman) 9 Odontological Indicators of Disease, Diet, and Nutritional Inadequacy 332 (M.E. Mack, A.H. Goodman, M.L. Blakey, and A. Mayes) 10 Osteological Indicators of Infectious Disease and Nutritional Inadequacy 351 (C. Null, M.L. Blakey, K.J. Shujaa, L.M. Rankin-Hill, and S.H.H. Carrington) 11 Skeletal Indicators of Work: Musculoskeletal, Arthritic and Traumatic 403 Effects (C. Wilczak, R. Watkins, C. Null, and M.L Blakey) 12 Subadult Growth and Development 461 (S.K. Goode-Null, K. Shujaa, and L.M. Rankin-Hill) 13 The Political Economy of Forced Migration: Sex Ratios, Mortality, 514 Population, Growth and Fertility among Africans in Colonial New York (M.L. Blakey, L.M. Rankin-Hill, J.E. Howson and S.H.H. Carrington) 14 Discussion 541 (M.L. Blakey, L.M. Rankin-Hill, A. Goodman, and F. Jackson) Bibliography 557 iv List of Tables Chapter 5 5.1 Population Sources for Craniometric Analysis by Froment 165 5.2 Howells Cranial Series 172 5.3 AMNH and Keita’s Series 172 5.4 Centroid Values, Functions 1 and 2 173 5.5 New York African Burial Ground Dental Traits Distribution 177 5.6 Scott and Turner Population Descriptions 179 5.7 Countries, Geographical Regions, and Historical Export Sites 191 for Enslaved Africans 5.8 Molecular genetic affinities of 48 individuals of the NYABG 194 5.9 Distribution of Haplogroups in the African and African-American 201 Populations 5.10 African Geographical Regions Currently Under Investigation as 205 Sources of Genetic Polymorphisms 5.11 Anticipated Future Genetic Analyses of the NYABG Samples 215 Chapter 6 6.1 Comparison of Dental Hard Tissues and Bone 225 6.2 Range of Element Concentrations in Human Enamel 233 6.3 African Dental Modification Patterns (Gould et al. 1984) 242 6.4 ABG Modification Patterns and Reference Populations 244 6.5 NYABG Chemical Analysis Sample 247 6.6 ICP-MS External Calibration Results for NYABG Burial 6 LM1 250 Chapter 7 7.1 New York African Burial Ground Adult Mortality 274 7.2 New York African Burial Ground Subadult Mortality 275 7.3 Population of New York County, 1698-1800 Censuses 277 7.4 African Population by Age and Sex, 18th Century Censuses 280 7.5 Sex Ratio New York City County 1703-1819 282 7.6 NYABG and Trinity Church Subadult Mortality 285 7.7 Skeletal Series of the African Diaspora 292 7.8 Mean Age at Death for Afro-American Skeletal Populations 293 7.9 NYABG, FABC and Cedar Grove Subadult Mortality by Age Group 295 7.10 New York African Burial Ground Life Table 297 7.11 New York African Burial Ground Male Life Table 299 7.12 New York African Burial Ground Female Life Table 300 v Chapter 8 8.1 Summary of Study Samples 309 8.2 NYABG Canine Chronology Formula and Example Calculation 313 8.3 Frequency of Hypoplasia in Males and Females at NYABG 315 8.4 Comparison of Frequencies Reported in Skeletal Populations 315 8.5 NYABG Frequency of Hypoplasia by Age Group 315 8.6 NYABG Frequency of Hypoplasia by Age and Sex: Canines and 321 Incisors – controlling for attrition 8.7 NYABG Frequency of Hypoplasia by Age Group: Third Molars – 322 controlling for attrition 8.8 NYABG Occurrence of Hypoplasia by Age Range 323 8.9 NYABG Occurrence of Hypoplasia by Age Intervals 323 8.10 NYABG Hypoplasia in Culturally Modified and Unmodified 328 Permanent Teeth 8.11 NYABG Comparison of Hypocalcification and Hypoplasia 330 Frequencies by Age Group Chapter 9 9.1 Dental Pathology Frequency - Males – Permanent Dentition 337 9.2 Dental Pathology Frequency – Females – Permanent Dentition 338 9.3 New York African Burial Ground Total Number Carious Teeth 339 by Sex 9.4 Dental Pathology Frequency by sex for the permanent 342 dentition of individuals from the New York African Burial Ground 9.5 Dental Pathology Frequency – Deciduous Dentition 342 9.6 New York African Burial Ground Dental Pathology Mean 345 Comparison with Other 18th and 19th Century Samples (Steckel and Rose 2000) 9.7 New York African Burial Ground Dental Pathology Mean 346 Comparison with Other 18th and 19th Century Samples (Kelly and Angel 1987) Chapter 10 10.1 Age Structure of Assessed Sample 357 10.2 African Diaspora Skeletal Series Discussed in this Chapter 358 10.3 Occurrence and Status of Generalized Infectious Disease 361 10.4 Generalized Infectious Disease Statistical Testing: Intra-Population 361 10.5 Generalized Infectious Disease Statistical Testing: Inter-Population 363 10.6 Occurrence of Treponemal Infection Indicators 372 10.7 Demographic Profile of Occurrence of Treponemal Infection 374 Indicators 10.8 Porotic Hyperostosis: All Cranial Locations 382 vi 10.9 Porotic Hyperostosis Statistical Testing: Intra-Population 383 10.10 Porotic Hyperostosis: Cribra Orbitalia 385 10.11 Cribra Orbitalia Statistical Testing: Intra-Population 386 10.12 Porotic Hyperostosis Statistical Testing: Inter-Population 387 10.13 Cribra Orbitalia Statistical Testing: Inter-Population 388 10.14 Medial/Lateral Bowing of the Lower Long Bones 393 10.15 Medial/Lateral Bowing Statistical Testing: Intra-Population 394 10.16 Co-occurrence of Porotic Hyperostosis with Periostitis 396 10.17 Co-occurrence of Porotic Hyperostosis with Periostitis Statistical 396 Testing: Intra-Population. 10.18 Co-occurrence of Porotic Hyperostosis with Periostitis Statistical 397 Testing: Inter-Population Chapter 11 11.1 Demography of the Sample used in Stress Marker Analysis 406 11.2 Distribution of moderate to severe vertebral osteoarthritis by sex 409 11.3 Distribution of moderate to severe vertebral osteophytosis by sex 410 11.4 Regional Distribution of Schmorl’s nodes 416 11.5 Percentage of Individuals with Schmorl’s nodes by Age 417 11.6 Spondylolysis and Associated Vertebral Degenerative Changes 419 11.7 Distribution of moderate to severe osteoarthritis in the upper limb 423 11.8 Distribution of moderate to severe osteoarthritis in the lower limb 426 11.9 Average moderate to severe musculoskeletal stress marker scores 434 by age 11.10 MSMs frequencies in males and females 438 11.11 Skeletal Studies of MSM in Enslaved African Americans 445 11.12 Number of fractures by skeletal element in adults by sex1 453 11.13 Number of fractures by skeletal region in adult by sex 454 11.14 Number of premortem and perimortem fractures per individual 455 Chapter 12 12.1 African-American Stature Regression Formulae as Developed by 471 Trotter (1970, cf Ubelaker 1989) 12.2 Fetal and Neonate Stature Regression Formulae as Developed by 471 Fazekas and Kosa (1978) 12.3 Regression Formulas for Calculating Stature of the Immature 474 Remains of Male Children 12.4 Regression Formulas for Calculating Stature of the Immature 475 Remains of Female Children 12.5 Regression Formulas for Calculating Stature of the Immature 476 Remains of Indeterminate Children 12.6 Power Values for Statistical Chi-square Tests Based on Sub-sample 477 Sizes and Magnitude of Effect. vii 12.7 δli and δlmean Values for the NYABG Population Sub-sample by Sex 479 12.8 Male Stature Estimates and Growth Standard Percentile Rankings 484 for Individuals less than 25 years of age only 12.9 Female Stature Estimates and Growth Standard Percentile Rankings 484 for Individuals less than 25 years of age only 12.10 Occurrence