European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 84, April 2008 | 101-105 Intellectuals and Dictators in the Dominican Republic Michiel Baud – Nation and Citizen in the Dominican Republic, 1880-1916, by Teresita Martínez- Vergne. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Carolina Press, 2005. – Los desvaríos de Ti Noel. Ensayos sobre la producción del saber en el Caribe, by Pedro San Miguel. San Juan, PR, Vertigo, 2004. – The Imagined Island. History, Identity, and Utopia in Hispaniola, by Pedro San Miguel. Translated by Jane Ramírez. Chapel Hill, NC, University of North Caro- lina Press 2005. – Foundations of Despotism. Peasants, the Trujillo Regime, and Modernity in Do- minican History, by Richard Lee Turits. Stanford, CA, Stanford University Press, 2003. The Dominican Republic had two intellectuals as president during the twentieth century: Juan Bosch and Joaquín Balaguer. Both these men, although ideologically completely different, produced an extensive oeuvre of literary and historical texts and at the same time pursued long political careers. This occurred in the context of the long dictatorship of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, who controlled the country with an iron hand from 1930 to 1961. The prominence of two politically ambitious intel- lectuals in a small underdeveloped country with a long authoritarian tradition poses interesting questions as to the relationship between intellectuals and politics. San Miguel’s The Imagined Island concerns itself both with the history and the interpretation of history in the Dominican Republic and, to a lesser extent, in Haiti. With great erudition, the author looks into the struggle for identity and political power on the island of Hispaniola shared by Haiti and Santo Domingo. In four lu- cid essays, San Miguel unravels the historical imagination of this fascinating is- land. He starts out with two more general essays in which he analyses the historical imagination concerning the Spanish colonial domination of the island and the ra- cial contents of the Dominican identity in the independent Dominican Republic. If anything, these essays confirm how the two parts of the island are linked to each other like Siamese twins; and, on the other hand, how desperately the Dominican elites have tried to affirm the separate identity of their country. The intensity of this double binding is hard to exaggerate and almost impossible to fully understand for outsiders. In the last two essays San Miguel uses Haitian intellectual Jean Price- Mars and Dominican writer-politician Juan Bosch to dig into the complexities of nation building and identity formation in Haiti and the Dominican Republic. He presents Price-Mars as the intellectual voice of Haiti and understands his work as a construction of a Haitian (and one could say ‘Black’) perspective on the island’s identity. In his last essay San Miguel analyses the fictional and historical work by Juan Bosch as an indication of an evolving national modernizing project. This pro- ject was evidently coloured by Bosch’s experiences in Cuba, that modern and cul- Published by CEDLA – Centre for Latin American Research and Documentation | Centro de Estudios y Documentación Latinoamericanos, Amsterdam; ISSN 0924-0608; www.cedla.uva.nl 101 102 | Revista Europea de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe 84, abril de 2008 tured island of the Caribbean. For Bosch, the backwardness of Dominican society, which had led to cultural (or even racial) pessimism among many of the Dominican letrados, was the direct result of the absence of a real capitalist development in the country prior to the late twentieth century. This had also led to a weak bourgeoisie that had not been able to hold its own in the face of imperialism and authoritarian- ism. Later this analysis would become the basis of Bosch’s political programme that intended to apply Marxist analysis to the specific circumstances of the country. It has been the tragedy of Juan Bosch’s life that after his short, violently aborted presidency in 1963, he never had the opportunity to put his ideas into practice. Los desvaríos de Ti Noel, which was published in Puerto Rico in 2004, touches on many of the same themes and can be seen as a continuation of the discussion started in San Miguel’s 1997 book. It is a somewhat uneven collection of essays, book reviews and more general writings. In the long and most interesting essay, ‘Visiones históricas del Caribe’, San Miguel further pursues his analysis of the relation between intellectuals and national identity, extending it to the historical development of the Spanish Caribbean in general. He sketches the well-known patterns of Spanish Caribbean history with its discussion on the relation between plantations and peasant farming, and shows how this discussion went to the heart of the historical debate in the Caribbean. Influenced by the Indian subaltern stud- ies, but also by the work of his Puerto Rican mentor, Fernando Picó, he is espe- cially interested in the possibilities of the popular classes to influence history. He finishes by suggesting that the present-day migration and globalization has finally placed the subaltern classes on centre stage. San Miguel is at his best when he suc- ceeds in connecting the history of the Spanish Caribbean to broader historiographic issues like nation-building, the social and political position of intellectuals, etc. Of course, there are always issues one can disagree with or debate about. For example, his analysis of Dominican-Haitian relations is still very much informed from a Dominican perspective, and he has not yet succeeded in constructing a completely balanced model of analysis. For example, while he has no problem in presenting the various viewpoints on the side of the Dominican Republic, the only time he presents a Haitian intellectual (Price-Mars), he feels the need to register the objec- tions of a whole range of Dominican intellectuals. A more important issue is that in various instances he points to the oral, popular versions of past and present, and how these are different from those of politicians and intellectuals. But he does not tell us how this popular knowledge and these popular perspectives are constructed, how they relate to more hegemonic national versions, or how they eventually may have a bearing on national political discourse. San Miguel’s books may be compared to a monograph by another Puerto Rican historian, Teresita Martínez-Vergne, which connects to his approach. It focuses on a period that has traditionally been favoured in Dominican historiography, at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in which the utopia of modernity reigned in full glory. Martínez-Vergne focuses on what may be called ‘ideologies of progress’, a loose set of ideas which demonstrated the elite’s obsession with the idea of ‘el progreso’. In the first chapters of her book Martínez-Vergne intends to show how these ideologies of progress combined with a new nationalist fervour that took shape in the urban centres in the south of the country, especially in Santo Domingo, and in San Pedro de Macorís, the then booming sugar town. On the basis 102 European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies 84, April 2008 | 103 of a wealth of primary sources, she stresses what she calls ‘the bind’ of the Do- minican elites. They not only wished modernity, they demanded it, but in this holy project they were faced with a ‘people’ that did not appear to be inclined to ‘rise to the occasion’. Added to this was the influx of migrant labour that was necessary to bring about the desired modernization, but caused its own set of problems of race and national identity. The result was – as everywhere in Latin America – the im- plementation of Liberal policies that mixed coercion with efforts to paternalisti- cally civilize the poor muddled masses. After a chapter on perceptions of bourgeois femininity that stands somewhat apart from the general thrust of the book, Martínez-Vergne devotes the last chapters to the activities and reactions of these working classes. She argues that what was often considered as resistance to change may better be seen as a struggle for citizenship on the part of the subaltern classes. In combination with access to new material welfare, she suggests that in spite of elite opinions to the contrary, the working men and women of the urban centres actively took part in the search for modernity and national citizenship. Although she presents some interesting material to sustain this view, archival documents do not provide her with many opportunities to present the viewpoints of the subaltern classes. It is clear that Martínez-Vergne’s book touches on many of the same themes as San Miguel. Both try to understand the construction of intellectual imaginations in the Spanish-speaking Caribbean; both profess the importance of subaltern voices, without effectively being able to present them. The nature of the books, however, is quite different. Martínez-Vergne clearly connects her analysis to archival evi- dence, where San Miguel (surely on the basis of his earlier archival research) pre- sents more general interpretations. Both perspectives are necessary if we want to understand both history and the production of historical knowledge, but social his- torians need to find new forms of empirical evidence to better understand the ex- pressions and influence of subaltern voices. At the same time it would be useful to confront their viewpoints not only with fashionable theoretical literature, but also with the results of empirical research in other regions in Latin America or the Car- ibbean. The books reviewed here restrict themselves to the realm of knowledge produc- tion and do not answer the question regarding its societal consequences. Even Martínez-Vergne, who links her analysis to the social and economic developments of the country, does not provide much insight into how these ideas filtered down into society.