Rural Development Sociology (RDS) Chair Group MSc. Thesis Struggles in Shimoni: The political ecology of coastal fisheries in Kenya MID Richard Dimba Kiaka Supervisors: Prof. Leontine Visser Dr. Dik Roth April, 2012 Struggles in Shimoni: The political ecology of coastal fisheries in Kenya Richard Dimba Kiaka Thesis submitted for the partial fulfillment of the degree of the MSc. Program: International Development Studies (Sociology of Development) Supervisors: Prof. Leontine Visser Dr. Dik Roth Wageningen University and Research Centre 2012, The Netherlands 2 ABSTRACT There exist constant resource-use struggles in the small-scale coastal fisheries of Kenya including Shimoni. Positivistic ecological and economic studies ignore the complex and multi-scalar socio- political nature of these struggles. Such studies inadequately reduce the cause of the struggles to competition for scarce fisheries, policy failure and stubbornness of artisanal fishers. This study, by following a political ecology approach, argues that struggles in small-scale coastal fisheries of Shimoni are influenced by unequal power relations that transform the existing socio-political relations of fisher groups. Additionally, the study argues that fluid identity politics can be used by small-scale artisanal fishers to challenge the unequal power relations. Particular focus is on ring net and spear gun fishing, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Co-management – Beach Management Unit (BMU). Key words: Resource-use struggles, political ecology, power relations, identity politics, small-scale coastal fisheries, Ring net, Spear gun, MPAs, Co-management, BMU, Kenya, Shimoni, 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I undertook this study with invaluable academic guidance from my supervisors, Professor Leontine Visser and Dr. Dik Roth. Leontine’s advice right from proposal building to thesis writing helped me to shape my focus from a wider and vague idea of fisheries co-management to a more specific socio- political resource-use struggles in coastal fisheries. With her support I was able to define and refine my theoretical approach and choice of concepts especially regarding power relations and knowledge processes. Dik was a very critical reader, always going through my many drafts with a toothcomb. His research experience in legal pluralism helped me to be careful in using concepts such as access and rights to avoid academic vagueness. Even more, he constantly strengthened my confidence that despite their advice and views, I should retain the ownership and responsibility of the thesis. I am grateful to both of them for making sure that my thesis was as scientifically sound as possible –a practice that is inevitable in academia. Fieldwork would have been difficult without the support of Shimoni BMU secretary, Mr. Rishad Iki Hamisi. Rishad helped me to arrange the interviews and field excursions which were central to my data collection process. Besides, he treated me like a son and I cannot thank him enough for his hospitality. Many thanks to my key informants from government’s Fisheries Department especially Mr. John Mwingereza and Mr. Njuguna for their immense support in giving useful information and providing me with an office space during fieldwork. I acknowledge the support from Kenya Wildlife Service, Shimoni office and Mr. Dishon Murage of East Africa Wildlife Society, not to mention officials of Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute in Shimoni. Without the wealth of information, some very sensitive, from fishers and fish dealers in Shimoni, it would be impossible to complete this thesis. May the readers of my work help me to appreciate them. Not least, I am in debt to the Netherlands Fellowship Program for its financial support to my masters studies in general and this thesis in specific. 4 LIST OF ACRONYMS BMU - Beach Management Unit CCA - Community Conserved Areas CRDO - Coast Rural Development Organization EAWS - East Africa Wildlife Society FAO - United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization GoK - Government of Kenya KANU - Kenya African National Union KMFRI - Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute Ksh. - Kenya Shillings KWS - Kenya Wildlife Service MPAs - Marine Protected Areas NGOs - Non Governmental Organizations WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature 5 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Distribution of fishing vessels in Kwale district ………………………………………………………32 Table 2: Respondent selection criteria …………………………………………………………………………….....34 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Picture of ring net loaded in a boat. Source; Okeyo (2010) .................................................... 37 Figure 2: Picture of a ring net boat at Mwazaro creek: Photo by R. Kiaka. November, 2011 ............... 39 Figure 3: Picture of basket trap (malema): Photo by R. Kiaka, Shimoni, November, 2012 .................. 39 Figure 4: Picture of gillnet (Jarife): Photo by R. Kiaka, Shimoni, December, 2011 ................................ 39 Figure 5: Picture of a fence trap in Shimoni. Photo by R. Kiaka, November, 2011 ................................ 40 Figure 6: Drawing of a spear gun. Source Okeyo (2010)……………………………………………………………………54 Figure 7: Picture of Spear gun. Photo by C. Obota ................................................................................ 54 Figure 8: Average fish landings across fishing gears in Shimoni ........................................................... 55 Figure 9: Preference of fishing grounds across fishing methods ........................................................... 64 Figure 10: Fish catch across fishing grounds ......................................................................................... 64 Figure 11: Map of Kisite/Mpunguti marine protected area: Source; Emerton and Tassema, (2001) ... 65 Figure 12: Picture of a news paper cutting about arrested spear gun fisher. Photo by R. Kiaka, December, 2012..................................................................................................................................... 68 Figure 13: Participants of the seminar on socio-economic monitoring organized by EAWS; Photo by EAWS ..................................................................................................................................................... 75 Figure 14: A picture of a confiscated fishing net being inspected by Fisheries Department officers. Photo by R. Kiaka, January 2012 ........................................................................................................... 76 6 LIST OF CASE STUDIES Case study 1: An encounter with ring net fishers ………………………………………………………………..47 Case study 2: Juma’s ordeal with wapemba identity ………………………………………………………….49 Case study 3: Everybody knows that ‘we are poor’………………………………………………………………60 Case study 4: Arrested, charged and fined but feels victorious ……………………………………………67 Case study 5: Not fish worker but the BMU chairman ………………………………………………………74 LIST OF TEXT BOXES Text box 1: The objectives of BMUs……………………………………………………………………………………..71 Text box 2: Objectives of the Shimoni BMU……………………………………………………………………......72 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................. 5 LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................ 6 LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... 6 LIST OF CASE STUDIES ............................................................................................................................. 7 LIST OF TEXT BOXES ................................................................................................................................. 7 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... 11 1.0. RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN KENYA’S SMALL-SCALE COASTAL FISHERIES ................................ 15 1.1. Characteristics of the small-scale coastal fisheries ............................................................... 15 1.1.1. Social organisation of the fishers .................................................................................. 15 1.1.2. The missing link in the fisheries struggles ..................................................................... 16 1.2. Experiences with coastal fisheries management instruments in Kenya ............................... 17 1.2.1. Fisheries regulations and coastal fishing methods........................................................ 17 1.2.2. Fishers’ relations to marine protected areas (MPAs) .................................................... 18 1.2.3. Fisheries co-management and local struggles .............................................................. 19 1.3. Research problem ................................................................................................................. 20 2.0. THEORETICAL APPROACH AND KEY CONCEPTS ........................................................................ 22 2.1. Political ecology perspective ................................................................................................