Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.) Andersen, Helle Damgaard Publication date: 1998 Document version Early version, also known as pre-print Citation for published version (APA): Andersen, H. D. (1998). Etruscan architecture from the Late Orientalizing to the Archaic period (c. 640–480 B.C.). Download date: 24. Sep. 2021 NB: This is a digitalized version of my Ph.D. dissertation. It was originally in 5 volumes: Vol 1: The text This is included in the main text Vol. 2: The illustration to the text This is not included since this does not exist in a digitalized version. In the appendix there is a list of the illustrations Vol. 3: Catalogue of secondary evidence This is now included in the appendix Vol 4: Appendix of Etruscan and Latial settlement This is included in the appendix Vol 5: Illustrations to the appendix of Etruscan and Latial settlement This is not included since this does not exist in a digitalized version. In the appendix there is a list of the illustrations This digitalized version now include 2 volumes: Vol 1: The dissertation text Vol. 2: The original vol. 2 and 4 and illustration lists, terminology, practical information PRACTICAL INFORMATION - In several cases I have chosen to repeat important information from the appendix or catalogue so that it should be possible to read the text without consulting the appendix or catalogue all the time. - By Latium Vetus I understand Rome and the area south of Rome. The dividing lines between Southern Etruria and Northern Etruria are the rivers Ombrone and dell'Albegna. The most northern part of Etruria I refer to as the Po Valley. - All names of places/sites used are the modern Italian names except those that are more commonly known under their ancient name, i.e. Veii and Satricum. - By architectural terracottas I understand all types of terracottas placed on the roof, that is both decorative terracottas such as statues placed along the ridge of the roof, and functional terracottas such as antefixes which prevented the wind from lifting the roof. Though it can be debated whether horizontal friezes were placed on the roofs or below the roofs, attached to the walls, I have chosen to regard these as architectural terracottas. Even if tiles may be considered architectural terracottas I have chosen not to do so in order to avoid confusion. - Left and right: in describing iconography left and right are seen from the viewer’s point of view. - Unless otherwise stated all translations follow those of the Loeb editions. - Several Italian terms are not easily translated into English. A pozzo may mean both a pit, a well and a votive deposit. In case of doubt I have retained the Italian term. The same goes for fossa, which may mean both a tomb, a depression, a ditch or a trench. A number of pottery shapes are also not easily translated, thus I use the Italian form (e.g. olle). - References to figures in this dissertation are in italics. They are separated into Figs. 1-154, i.e. figures relation to chapter 1-6; Figs. A1-A81, i.e. figures relating to the catalogue of models, and Figs. B1-B357, i.e. figures relating to the appendix of sites. - Illustrations: besides illustrations of all the building models (if possible) and technical details and reconstructions regarding building technique, illustrations have been limited to ground-plans due to the many sites discussed. If possible these plans have been turned (if necessary) so that north is at the top of the illustrations. When available, reconstruction drawings of the buildings are also included TERMINOLOGY The following is an attempt to make a definition of the terms used within Etruscan architecture.1 ARCHITECTURAL TERMS (Figs. 122)2 Barge boards: projecting boards placed against the incline of the gable and protecting the ends of the horizontal roof timbers. Batten/lath: a light wooden members laid on top of the rafters/purlins. On these the tiles could be placed (if not laid directly on the rafters/purlins). Clay bedding: a layer of clay placed under the tiles. Coffered ceiling: a ceiling with beams transversing each other, creating a rectangular space in between, often decorated. Collar beam: a tie beam applied some distance above wall plate level, usually joining the opposite principal rafters. Column: a vertical support, circular in section. Cross piece: logs crossing each other on the ridge of the roof, used on thatched roofs. Doric door: see porta Dorica. Ground plate: the horizontal beam which forms the bottom member of a timber framed wall, placed on top of the foundations. Half-timbering/timber framed building: a building whose weight is carried by the framework instead of by load-bearing walls. In between horizontal beams (Bressumer) and vertical beams (studs) could be inserted. The vertical posts could be connected to the tie beam and the sill by oblique beams (bracing). King-post: a post standing on a tie beam and rising to the apex of the roof where it supports a ridge-piece. Lesene: a simple pilastre without any flutings, capital or base. Lünettentür: a rectangular door with a semi-circular panel above.3 Mudbrick: square or elongated sun-dried clay brick, used for walls. Murs a piliers: walls built of large stone blocks/"pilastres", placed at intervals, with a fill of smaller stones in between. This technique is also sometimes called opera a telaio. Such a technique is late called opus africanum. Opera a telaio: see murs a piliers. Pilastre: a pillar projecting only slightly from the wall. Pillar: a vertical support, rectangular in section. Pisé: a wall of packed mud/clay mixed with straw, pressed between a structure of boards until it was dry. Plaster: unbaked clay, used both on the interior and the exterior of walls, and possibly also on the interior of roofs. Porta Dorica: a door that is trapezoidal in shape and framed with a relief decoration.4 Prop-and lintel construction (or propped and piled or bearer beam roof): a roof construction with a 1 These are based on a combination of various architectural monographs and handbooks, primarily Hodge 1960; J. Fleming, H. Honour & N. Pevsner, The Penguin dictionary of architecture, 2nd ed., Suffolk 1972 (and later); Ginouvès 1992; Downey 1995. 2 When possible these follow standard reference works, such as J. Fleming, H. Honour & N. Pevsner, The Penguin Dictionary of Architecture, Suffolk 1966 (and later editions). The Latin terms are taken mostly from Vitruvius and Festus. 3 After Prayon 1975. See further chapter 6. 4 After Vitruvius 4.6.1 (see also Prayon 1975, 27 n. 119). horizontal tie beam connected by a king-post to the two raking rafters of the gable, and thus not forming a truss. Purlin: the horizontal timber of the roof construction (from gable to gable) laid parallel with the wall plate and the ridge beam, resting on the principal rafters and forming an intermediate support for the rafters. Queen-post: a pair of upright posts placed symmetrically on a tie beam, connected by a collar beam to the rafters above. Rafter: roof timbers sloping up from the wall to the ridge. They are usually placed at an interval corresponding to the width of the roof tiles. The principal rafters are the main rafters in the construction of a truss. Ridge beam: the large central wooden beams/ridge pieces, supporting the roof/ceiling. Sheathing: a light boarding laid on top of the battens and at right angles to them, that is, parallel to the rafters. Sill: the lower horizontal part of a timber frame in a wall, resting on the foundations. Tie beam: the horizontal transverse beam in a roof, connecting the feet of the rafters, usually on the top of the wall plate, to counteract the truss. Truss: three pieces of timber (two principal rafters and a tie beam) framed together to form a triangle in the gable, to be self-supporting, and to carry other timbers. Trusses were placed at the gables, and could also be placed at intervals along the length of the building. Torus: a projecting convex moulding, usually semi-circular in section. Wall plate: a timber laid longitudinally on the top of a wall to receive the end of the rafters. Wattle and daub: a wall construction of branches or thin laths (wattles) roughly plastered over with mud or clay (daub). Can also be used as filling in between timber-framed walls. The Latin terms:5 asseres: rafters or laths. argilla cum capillo subacta: clay bedding. cathenae: purlins (???) - only mentioned by Adam 1994. cantherii: wall plates or rafters. capreoli: in Vitruvian index the king-post; in the Loeb translation the stay. columen: ridge (except in Ginouvès 1992, who interprets columen as the king-post and culmen as the ridge - according to most other scholars columen and culmen is the same). In Latin columen or culmen means "that which rises in height, is prominent, projects. In architecture it is used as "the top of a gable end, a gable pillar, a prop" (Lewis & Short). columnae: columns. lacunaria: coffered ceilings. mutuli: the rafters, often used about the visible ends of the rafters. templa: many interpretations (sheathing, battens, laths or purlins). trabes: discussed only in Ginouvés 1992, who uses the term both as purlins and wall plate. transtra: the tie beam (identical to tignum). transtra cum capreolis: the truss. ROOF TYPES a schiena: i.e. shaped like the back of a donkey. This type of roof is used on huts and is basically a hipped roof. This type of roof is only used for thatched roofs.