EXAMINING THE TIME COURSE OF ATTENTION IN MONOLINGUALS AND BILINGUALS ASHLEY CHUNG-FAT-YIM A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PSYCHOLOGY YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO April 2020 © Ashley Chung-Fat-Yim, 2020 ii Abstract There is converging evidence demonstrating that lifelong experience managing multiple languages on a regular basis has consequences for both language and cognition. Across the lifespan, bilinguals tend to outperform monolinguals on tasks that require selective attention. Compared to studies on children and older adults, these effects are less consistently observed in young adults. The majority of the research with young adults use relatively simple tasks that yield fast reaction times and accuracy rates at ceiling. In addition, these measures capture the endpoint of a chain of dynamic cognitive processes. Hence, the goal of the dissertation was to integrate tWo time-sensitive methodologies, mouse-tracking and eye-tracking, to examine whether monolinguals and bilinguals differ in the processes engaged betWeen the time a response is initiated to when a response is selected. To assess cognitive performance, young adult and older adult monolinguals and bilinguals were administered the global-local task and oculomotor Stroop task While their eye-movements and mouse-movements were recorded. Both tasks involved focusing on one feature of the stimulus, While ignoring the other feature. When standard analyses of mean reaction time and accuracy were performed, no differences betWeen language groups Were observed in either age group. The mouse-tracking measures revealed that similar to experts, young adult bilinguals were slower to initiate a response than young adult monolinguals, while older adult bilinguals had a higher maximum velocity than older adult monolinguals. By using time-sensitive methodologies, we gain a deeper understanding of the cognitive processes associated with attention that are impacted by bilingualism during decision-making. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr. Ellen Bialystok, for alWays pushing me to be a better researcher. You are inspiring in your continuous pursuit to address the bigger questions. Your passion and mentorship are unparalleled, and I strive to someday follow in your footsteps. I am eternally grateful for everything you have done for me. Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Thanujeni Pathman and Dr. Joseph DeSouza, for your patience and support throughout my dissertation; especially the last couple of months. I appreciate the feedback and comments that were provided. To my examining committee members, Dr. Debra Titone, Dr. Chandan Narayan, and Dr. Scott Adler, thank you for taking the time to read my dissertation and for critically evaluating my work. Thank you to the incredible minds at the Lifespan Cognition and Development Lab. I Would like to extend my gratitude to David Jesin, Yuval Hersko, and Eileen Ovaisy who assisted With data collection. Thank you Sadek Shorbagi for programming the experimental tasks in OpenSesame to be compatible with the eye-tracker. Lastly, Dr. Philip Chalmers, R-script genius! Thank you for your help with the eye-tracking data output. You managed to make something that Was not user-friendly to something manageable. I would also like to thank the individuals who chose to spend an hour or tWo of their time to participate in my study. To all of the older adult participants, I thoroughly enjoyed our conversations and the stories we shared. This amaZing journey would not be the same without the help and moral support from the following lab members, who over the years have become some of my closest friends. Thank you to Kornelia HaWryleWicZ, Kyle Comishen, Sadek Shorbagi, Dr. John Grundy, soon-to-be Dr. Matthias Berkes, and Dr. Audrey Wong-Kee-You. Thank you for the coffee shop writing sessions, dart games, hour long Skype conversations to discuss research, and lunch breaks. iv I would not be where I am today without the support from my mother, father, and brother. Thank you, MauriZio Vanarelli, for reminding me to stay focused on the bigger goal. You told me to keep pushing forward even when things Were tough and as a result, you gave me the extra motivation to cross the finish line. I dedicate my dissertation to my grandfather, Joseph Foo-Kong-Kioung. Je t'aime beaucoup Koung Koung. Mo pu mette mo chapeau carré bientot. v Table of Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents.............................................................................................................................v List of Tables.................................................................................................................................vii List of Figures ................................................................................................................................ix Chapter 1: Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….…….1 Selective Attention as a Model for Bilingualism…...……………………………………..8 Bilingualism and Executive Control: Controversial Findings……...………...………….12 Time-Sensitive Methodologies to Study Bilingualism……...………………...…………19 Current Dissertation………………...…………………………………………...……….24 Chapter 2: Method Participants……………………………………...………………………………………..27 Instruments…………………………………………………………………………….....27 Experimental Tasks………………………………………………………………..……..29 Procedure………………...…………………………….………………………..………..34 Eye-Tracker Apparatus and Calibration Process…………………………...………….....35 OpenSesame PygaZe Calibration……………………………………………………........36 Mouse-tracking Data Processing……………………………………………………........37 Chapter 3: Results Background Measures…………………………………………………………………....39 Baseline Task……………………………………...……………………………………..42 Oculomotor Stroop Task: Younger Adults………………………………………………43 Oculomotor Stroop Task: Older Adults…………………………………………...……..52 Global-Local Task: Younger Adults……………………………………………………..59 Global-Local Task: Older Adults………………………………………………………...71 Chapter 4: Discussion……………………………………………………...………………….…84 The Bilingual Expertise Hypothesis…………………………………………………......87 Task Effects and Difficulty……………………………………………………..……......91 Limitations and Considerations for Future Studies………………………………...…....94 Triangulation of Time-Sensitive Methodologies………………………….…...………...99 Conclusion……………………………...…………………………………………….....101 References……………………………………………………………………………………....102 Footnote……………………………………………...…………………………………………122 Appendices Appendix A: Young Adult Language and Social Background Questionnaire (Anderson, Mak, Keyvani Chahi, & Bialystok, 2018)………...……………………...………….....123 vi Appendix B: Older Adult Language and Social Background Questionnaire (Anderson, HaWryleWicZ, & Bialystok, in press)………………………………………………...….133 Appendix C: Shipley-2 Vocabulary Scale ………………………………………….......139 Appendix D: Shipley-2 Blocks Pattern Scale……………………………………...…....140 Appendix E: Informed Consent Form…………………………………………………..141 Appendix F: Debriefing Form…………………………………………………...……...143 vii List of Tables Table 1. Background Information by Language Group and Age Group………………….………………41 Table 2. Mean Scores (Standard Deviations) on the Baseline Task by Language Group and Age Group....…………………………………………………………………………………………..43 Table 3. Mean Reaction Times and Accuracy Rates (Standard Deviations) on the Oculomotor Stroop Task in Young Adults by Language Group and Block Half……………………………...44 Table 4. Mean Scores (Standard Deviations) of the Mouse-Tracking Measures on the Oculomotor Stroop Task in Young Adults by Language Group and Block Half………………………….…..47 Table 5. Mean Scores (Standard Deviations) of the Eye-Tracking Measures on the Oculomotor Stroop Task in Young Adults by Language Group and Block Half……………………………...51 Table 6. Mean Scores (Standard Deviations) Reaction Times and Accuracy Rates on the Oculomotor Stroop Task in Older Adults by Language Group and Block Half…………….…...53 Table 7. Mean Scores (Standard Deviations) on the Mouse-Tracking Measures of the Oculomotor Stroop Task in Older Adults by Language Group and Block Half………………….……….…..55 Table 8. Mean Scores (Standard Deviations) for the Eye-Tracking Measures on the Oculomotor Stroop Task in Older Adults by Language Group and Block Half…………….….......................58 Table 9. Mean Reaction Times and Accuracy Rates (Standard Deviations) on the Global-Local Task from the Mixed Block in Young Adults…………………………………………………....62 Table 10. Means (Standard Deviations) of the Mouse-Tracking Measures on the Global-Local Task from the Mixed Block in Young Adults……………………………………………….…...67 Table 11. Mean Time Spent Looking at Stimulus (Standard Deviations) on the Global-Local Task from the Mixed Block in Young Adults……………………………………………………..…...69 Table 12. Means (Standard Deviations) on the Global-Local Task of the Trials from the Pure Block in Young Adults…………………………………………………………………………...71 Table 13. Mean Reaction Times and Accuracy Rates (Standard Deviations) on the Global-Local Task in the Mixed Block for Older Adults…………………………………………………….…75 Table 14. Means Scores (Standard Deviations) on the Mouse-Tracking Measures of the Global- Local Task in the Mixed Block with Older Adults………………………………………………79