especially in the Third World. Salishchev also edited the monograph Kompleksnyye regional’nyye atlasy (1976), which synthesized the research experiences of many university geographers and cartographers. His research and writings contributed to scholarship in many areas, S especially cartographic methodology, cartographic mod- eling, the theoretical development of geographic cartog- Salishchev, Konstantin Alekseyevich. K. A. Sali- raphy, the use of spatial analysis in thematic mapping, shchev, perhaps the most prominent Russian cartogra- and computer-assisted cartography. Salishchev produced pher of the Soviet period, was born on 20 November numerous map series for Soviet secondary and higher 1905, in Tula, Russia. After graduating in 1926 from education. what became the Moskovskiy institut inzhenerov geo- Salishchev’s pedagogic activities started in 1931 on the dezii, aerofotos”yëmki i kartografi i (MIIGAiK), he be- geographical faculty of Leningrad University. In 1936 he gan his scientifi c career in the expeditions in northeast joined the staff of the cartographic faculty at MIIGAiK, Eurasia and was one of the discoverers of the Cherskogo and in 1942 he began teaching courses to geographer- Range, among the highest elevations in eastern Siberia. cartographers at MGU, where he worked until his death He received a Dr. Sci. Tech. degree from MIIGAiK in in 1988. He also held the post of prorector of the MGU 1941 and later served as vice president (1964–68), presi- and headed the Department of History of Geographical dent (1968–72), and past president (1972–76) of the In- Sciences and, since 1950, the Department of Geodesy ternational Cartographic Association (ICA) and as head and Cartography, which became a large teaching and of the Department of Geodesy and Cartography of the research center under his management. Lomonosov Moscow State University—Moskovskiy go- Salishchev’s textbooks on the fundamentals of cartol- sudarstvennyy universitet (MGU). ogy (the academic theoretical aspects of cartography), Salishchev’s major creative endeavor was planning practical cartography, map design and compilation, and and editing the Bol’shoy sovetskiy atlas mira (1937–40), the history of cartography were kept current by frequent a massive undertaking that includes data on physical, so- revision and informed several generations of geogra- cial, economic, and political geography. He also partici- phers and cartographers in Russia and other countries. pated actively in the creation of several other large Rus- He sought to link cartography with earth science and sian atlases, notably, the Atlas istorii geografi cheskikh the social sciences and to integrate it with geography otkrytiy i issledovaniy (1959), the fi rst two volumes of and the natural sciences. the Morskoy atlas (1950–53), the Atlas mira (1954), the Salishchev’s articles, reports, and textbooks have been Fiziko geografi cheskiy atlas mira (1964), and the multi- translated into many languages, and he enjoyed consid- volume Atlas okeanov (1974–93). erable prestige within the world cartographic commu- In 1956, at the XVIII Congress of the International nity. He was elected an honorary member of geographic Geographical Union in Rio de Janeiro, Salishchev and geodetic societies in Serbia, Columbia, Scotland, Po- helped found the Commission on National Atlases, land, the United States, Bulgaria, Italy, Hungary, Geor- which he chaired for sixteen years. The commission pro- gia, and Azerbaijan, and he was awarded honorary doc- moted thematic cartography and the unifi cation of atlas torates by the universities of Warsaw and Berlin. For his content as well as international cooperation among re- multifaceted scientifi c and organizing activities, the ICA searchers worldwide. Under Salishchev’s supervision, the named him to an ICA Honorary Fellowship in 1974 and commission prepared the scientifi c-methodical manuals awarded him its Karl Mannerfelt Gold Medal for out- Atlas nationaux (1960) and Regional Atlases (1964), standing contributions to world cartography in 1980. which infl uenced atlas development in many countries, Salishchev’s numerous program reports at IGU and ICA Scale 1383 meetings include “Modern Thematic Cartography and (Carroll 1894, 169) would still disappoint. Leaving out Problems of International Cooperation” at the XXI In- detail is a common strategy for limiting the complex- ternational Geographical Congress (IGC) in New Delhi ity of representations—but so too is the replacement of (1968), “Contribution of Geographical Congresses and complex real forms with simple mathematical ones or IGU to the Development of Cartography” at the XXII the replacement of real detail with the output of some IGC in Montreal (1972), and “Methods of Map Use” (in pattern-simulation process that produces artifi cial detail collaboration with A. M. Berlyant) at the joint session with all of the appearance of the real thing. of the XXIII IGC and the 8th Technical Conference of In cartography, the noun “scale” has come to stand as ICA in Moscow (1976). His activities and the scientifi c a single representative parameter of this complex pro- school he founded contributed to improved contacts cess. Thus a comparatively detailed map, representing between Russian scientists and the world cartographic a small area on a large sheet of paper, will be termed community. large-scale, and a comparatively generalized map that Salishchev’s scientifi c achievements were highly ac- represents the same area on a much smaller sheet of pa- claimed in the Soviet Union. In 1980 he was desig- per will be termed small-scale. Well before the twentieth nated the State Prize Winner for his participation in the century the term “scale” had become virtually synony- creation of the Atlas okeanov, and in 1967 and 1989 mous in cartography with representative fraction, which (posthumously) he won the D. N. Anuchin and M. V. is defi ned as the ratio of distance in the real world to Lomonosov Prizes. In 1963 he was awarded the high- distance in the representation. Maps and globes are ex- est state awards and orders, the Gold Medal of the amples of analog models, which represent aspects of Russkoye geografi cheskoye obshchestvo, and in 1965 the real world in the form of physical models, and all he was named Honored Scientist of Russia. Salishchev such models have an associated scaling parameter or died in Moscow on 25 August 1988. representative fraction that is as applicable to a three- A. M. Berlyant dimensional model of a building or a railway train as it See also: Academic Paradigms in Cartography: Europe; Atlas: Na- is to a two-dimensional map. tional Atlas; Bol’shoy sovetskiy atlas mira; International Carto- As national mapping agencies such as the U.S. Geo- graphic Association logical Survey (USGS) addressed the task of providing Bibliography: consistent mapping of the land surface, the representa- Berlyant, A. M., ed. 2005. Universitetskaya shkola geografi cheskoy tive fraction became the parameter that defi ned entire kartografi i (k 100-letiyu Prof. K. A. Salishcheva). Moscow: Aspekt Press. series of maps. Thus the 1:24,000 series, which con- Konecny, Milan, Ferjan Ormeling, and Vladimir S. Tikunov. 2005. sists of over 57,000 maps covering the conterminous “Centenary of the Birth of Konstantin Alexeevich Salishchev states, Hawaii, and U.S. territories, has an elaborate set (1905–1988).” ICA News 44:13–14. of defi ning rules that govern content, positional accu- Salishchev, Konstantin Alekseyevich. 1967. Einführung in die Karto- racy, and level of detail, all of which differ sharply from graphie. 2 vols. Gotha: VEB Hermann Haack, Geographisch- Kartographische Anstalt. those specifi ed for other series, such as the 1:100,000 or ———. 1971a. “Contribution of Geographical Congresses and the 1:250,000 series. Figure 883 compares the contents and International Geographical Union to the Development of Carto- appearance of USGS maps at these three scales. graphy.” IGU Bulletin 22, no. 2:1–22. Within this simple conceptual framework lurk a num- ———. 1971b. Kartografi ya: Izdaniye vtoroye, pererabotannoye i ber of issues and nuances that make scale one of the dopolnennoye. 2d ed. Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Vysshaya Shkola. ———. 1990. Kartovedeniye: Izdaniy tret’ye, dopolnennoye i pere- more problematic concepts in cartography. These have rabotannoye. 3d ed. Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Moskovskogo Universi- become progressively more important as cartography teta. has moved from the paper-based, nationally adminis- tered approach characteristic of the fi rst half of the cen- tury to the complex digital world of spatial data that began to emerge in the 1970s and as spatial data have Scale. Since the real world is infi nitely complex, it is become more important to a host of human activities essential that any representation of its surface simplify, ranging from science to day-to-day life. generalize, abstract, or approximate what is being repre- sented. It would be impossible, for example, to create a Flattening the Earth scale model of Mt. Everest that reproduced every aspect In addition to simplifying the earth’s surface, maps and of that landform; impossible to draw a map that repro- globes also change its shape. While the geoid, or the duced every detail of a city’s built form; and impossible surface of equal gravitational potential, has numerous to create a digital database that recorded every detail hills and dales, most globes are constructed on the as- of a university campus. Even Lewis Carroll’s fantasy of sumption that the earth is a sphere, and all maps are a map as large as the area it was intended to represent constructed on the assumption that it is fl at. Because the fig. 883. MADISON, WISCONSIN, SHOWN AT THREE Details shown at original size: 6.77 × 17.3 cm. Images cour- DIFFERENT TOPOGRAPHIC MAP SCALES. The three ex- tesy of the Arthur H. Robinson Map Library, University of amples, 1:24,000, 1:100,000, and 1:250,000, are centered on Wisconsin–Madison. the Capitol building. Scale 1385 mathematical transformations inherent in this reshaping visual interfaces to geographic data (Goodchild 2004).