Africa’s ‘miracle state’? the intersection of political leaders and non-state actors in the greening of Botswana through wildlife Emmanuel Mogende Thesis presented for the Degree of DOCTOR of PHILOSOPHY Department of Environmental and Geographical Science University of Cape Town February 2020 University of Cape Town The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town DECLARATION I, EMMANUEL MOGENDE, declare that the work contained in this thesis is my own original work and that it has not been previously submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution. Signature: Date: 10/02/2020 i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It would have not been possible to complete this dissertation without the support and assistance of a number of individuals who deserve to be mentioned. I am greatly indebted for the enormous support and wisdom of my supervisor and mentor Prof. Maano Ramutsindela who provided the much-needed guidance throughout the PhD journey. Maano always offered constructive feedback on my writing and ideas and more often encouraged me to sit back and be reflective as I write. This has greatly helped me to improve on my writing as well as strengthen the argument of the thesis. Special thanks also go to the Faculty of Science in the University of Cape Town and the University of Botswana for generously funding my PhD. In addition, the University of Botswana (UB) granted me a study leave of three years to enable me to undertake a Doctoral degree in the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science at the University of Cape Town of which I am grateful. This study leave enabled me to solely focus on the PhD without worrying much about work related stuff. I would to like to appreciate the Ministry of Environment, Natural Resource Conservation and Tourism (MENT) in Botswana for granting me a research permit to conduct research in the country. This research permit enabled me to access respondents with ease. Special thanks go to Dr. Michael Flyman who guided me through the process of acquiring a research permit in the Ministry. Furthermore, I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Mrs. Anastacia Makati from the Okavango Research Institute (ORI-UB) in the Geographical Information System (GIS) unit for helping out with the production of maps that have been used in this study. Also from ORI, I would like to thank Mr. Thebe Kemosedile who took his precious time to assist with driving during data collection in Khwai village in the Okavango Delta. My thanks also go to Mr. Maduo Mpolokang who assisted with transcribing some of the interview data and Ms. Dorcas Chalashika at the Botswana National Archives and Records services for generously assisting with guiding and searching for archival data. Many thanks also go to the various respondents that participated in the study ranging from government representatives, dikgosi (chiefs) in Ngamiland, academics, the local community of Khwai, members of parliament and the private tourism sector in Ngamiland who shared their time, knowledge and expertise during data collection. Special thanks go to the former President ii of Botswana Lt. Gen Ian Khama who afforded me an opportunity to interview him in his busy schedule. Indeed, it was a great privilege to interview the former statesman who is a rare source to access. My family, pastor, partner Popagano Khumoetsile Moses deserve a special mention for consistently encouraging me and giving me emotional and spiritual support whenever I needed it. Above all, I thank the Almighty God for giving me the strength, power and intelligence to complete this PhD study. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION...................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... II LIST OF APPENDICES ..................................................................................................... VII LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... VIII LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ IX ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. X ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... XII CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 THE STATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL GOVERNANCE ................................................ 1 1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 ‘Re-insertion of the state’ in environmental governance ................................................. 3 1.3 Statement of the research problem ................................................................................... 7 1.4 Aim and objectives of the study ....................................................................................... 9 1.5 Significance of the study ................................................................................................ 10 1.6 Botswana and wildlife conservation .............................................................................. 10 1.7 Thesis structure and overview of the chapters ............................................................... 13 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................... 16 TOWARDS THE GREEN STATE IN AFRICA ................................................................ 16 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Theories of the green state ............................................................................................. 17 2.2.1 Normative approach ................................................................................................ 17 2.2.2 Empirical approach ................................................................................................. 19 2.3 The exclusion of states in Africa in green state debates………………………………….22 2.3.1 Weak states ............................................................................................................. 23 2.3.2 Environmentalism as post-materialist ..................................................................... 27 2.4 The greening of the state in Africa ................................................................................ 29 2.5 Regulation by territorialisation ...................................................................................... 30 2.5.1 Protected Areas/Fortress conservation .................................................................... 32 2.5.2 Green militarisation ................................................................................................ 35 2.5.3 Decentralised environmental governance .............................................................. 36 2.5.4 Transfontier Conservation Areas (TFCAs) ............................................................. 39 2.6 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………..43 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 44 METHODOLOGICAL REFLECTIONS TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING BOTSWANA AS A GREEN STATE ................................................................................... 44 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 44 3.2 Setting ............................................................................................................................ 44 3.3 Research design and methodology ................................................................................. 49 3.4 Data Collection............................................................................................................... 51 3.4.1 Interviews ................................................................................................................ 52 3.4.2 Informal interviews ................................................................................................. 56 3.4.3 Observation ............................................................................................................. 57 iv 3.4.4 Archival data and document review ....................................................................... 57 3.5 Data analysis and interpretation ..................................................................................... 59 3.6 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................... 60 3.7 Study limitations ............................................................................................................ 61 3.8 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................