The London School of Economics and Political Science S YRIAN- A M E R I C A N R ELATIONS , 1 9 7 3 – 1 9 7 7 A STUDY OF SECURITY COOPERATION IN REGIONAL CONFLICTS Andrew James Bowen A thesis submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, September 2013. 1 To Caren Joy Siehl, Ph.D., and David Bowen, Ph.D., for their unconditional love, support, and wisdom throughout this intellectual journey 2 DECLARATION I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 107,033 words. STATEMENT OF USE OF THIRD PARTY FOR EDITORIAL HELP I can confirm that my thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Jenna Marangoni. 3 ABSTRACT The United States, a great power, and Syria, a small state, have both been at the heart of the politics of the Middle East since the end of World War II. The systemic conditions of the international system and the shifting politics of the region brought these states into contact and, at times, confrontation, but these interactions never produced a sustained period of security cooperation. By the beginning of the 1970s, both states had begun to reconsider and reshape their positions in the region. The period from 1973 to 1977 produced a rare period of cooperation between these two states in the case of two regional conflicts: the Arab–Israeli conflict and the Lebanese Civil War. To understand that shift in relations, this thesis explores the question: What accounts for the security cooperation between Syria and the US during this period? This thesis makes four observations: first, as results of changes in both states’ leaderships, realpolitik, alongside ideational considerations, became more pronounced in both states’ conceptions of their security environment in the Middle East and their relations with one another. Second, while the Cold War was the predominant context for the US’s interactions with Syria at the start of the 1970s, interactions between the US and Syria were also shaped by local conditions that emerged after the October War. Third, both states, distrustful of the other’s intentions, formed temporary alliances based on short-term common interests. Finally, the regional conflicts themselves introduced circumstances that both strengthened and weakened their security cooperation. While their security cooperation achieved limited results, their relations established a framework for these two states’ subsequent relations. The unresolved issues that emerged from this period of their relations served as the main context for their cooperation and conflict in the following decades, even after the death of Hafiz al-Asad in 2000. 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Throughout this intellectual journey, which has taken me from Europe to the Middle East to Africa, Asia and North America, I have met a countless number of people who have enriched my intellectual experience and who have also provided friendship, wisdom, and hospitality. As much as writing a Ph.D. is a solitary and, at times, austere experience of reflection, research, and writing, it is also the sum of thousands of experiences, which made this journey truly exceptional. While space doesn’t permit me to recognize everyone individually, I am truly in debt to them. I would first and foremost like to thank Fawaz Gerges, my doctoral supervisor, whose faith, guidance, support, and inspiration was invaluable throughout this intellectual journey. Through our long discussions about the international politics of the Middle East and his thought-provoking questions, I have grown as a scholar of International Relations and the Middle East. I especially would like to thank Ambassador Edward Djerejian for his time and investment in my intellectual journey. I would also like to thank Secretary of State James Baker for the opportunity to work at his Institute at Rice University, and the time he has spent discussing Syria and American foreign policy with me. I would like to thank Adel al-Toraifi, the Editor-in-Chief of Asharq Al-Awsat and Al Majalla and one of the finest analysts of the international and regional politics of the Middle East, for giving me the opportunity to both grow as a writer and scholar of the Middle East. I would like to thank Mai Yamani for the opportunity to work with her in London and her friendship. Mai is an incredible inspiration both as a person and as a scholar. I am eternally indebted to Mai for expanding my exposure to the history, culture, cuisine, music, literature, and politics of the region. I would like to thank the Department of International Relations at LSE for their financial support at different stages of the Ph.D., including their funding of aspects of my fieldwork and support for travel to international conferences. I would also like to thank the Department of International History at the LSE, where I received my M.Sc., for the opportunity to teach in your wonderful department. A countless number of scholars, analysts, and practitioners deeply enriched this intellectual journey. At LSE, I would like to thank my advisor, Kim Hutchings, for her guidance and 5 time during this intellectual journey. I would also like to thank Fred Halliday, Michael Cox, Katerina Dalacoura, Nigel Ashton, Kirsten Schulze, John Kent, Roy Allison, and Roham Alvandi for their guidance at different stages of the PhD process. My PhD colleagues with whom I shared this common experience of writing and research and the travails and joys of living in London deeply enriched this experience. I am confident they will all have bright, exciting futures ahead. They include: Manuel Almeida, James Strong, Alex Dueben, Chris Phillips, Jasmine Gani, Rebekka Friedman, Hadi Makarem, Ranj Alaaldin, Nabila Ramdani, and Alex Edwards. At Rice, I would like to thank Allen Matusow, Ussama Makdisi, and Douglas Brinkley for their guidance and time in discussing this period of America’s foreign relations and the Middle East. At the Baker Institute, I would like to thank Nate Jones, Chris Bronk, Marwa Salaby, Ben Stevenson, Jim Krane, Tony Payan, Keily Miller, and Lianne Hart for their time, support, and guidance. At Harvard, I would like to thank Stephen Walt and Niall Ferguson. I am grateful as well for the LSE’s and Rice University’s outstanding facilities and resources for research and writing. The people who graciously allowed me to interview and discuss the PhD thesis with them deserve special mention: Sirwar Al-Asad, Rifaat al-Asad, Abdul Halim Khaddam, Samir Frangieh, Richard Murphy, Edward Djerejian, Richard Herman, Stuart Spencer, and Hind Al-Moussli Atassi. Their insights were invaluable to completing this PhD. I am eternally indebted to my friends and family for their support throughout this process. Jon, Caro, Jenna, Julia, Sean, Michaela, Curran, Albert, Karen, Kristian, Sahil, Dina, Victor, Christian, Kristin, Mark, Gail, Kim, James, Kate, Grandma Dee, Janeanne, Dale, Susan, Lisa, Laura, Jimmy, Taylor, Julia, Rachel, Bilal, David, Nick, Charlotte, Elyse, Sarah, Hrishi, Sanna, Stephen, Matt, Ingrid, Scott, and Tarek have made life joyful. Finally, London made this journey particularly exceptional and has become a place that will always be considered home. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION THE UNITED STATES AND SYRIA: A NEW BEGINNING? ........................................................ 11 Research Question and Observations .......................................................................................... 12 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................... 14 Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 15 The Arab–Israeli Conflict and the Syrian Peace Track ........................................................... 18 The Lebanese Civil War of 1975–1976 .................................................................................. 21 Sources and Methodology ........................................................................................................... 24 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................................ 24 Impact of this Study..................................................................................................................... 26 1 CHAPTER 1 FRAMEWORK FOR UNDERSTANDING US–SYRIAN RELATIONS: IDENTITY AND INTERESTS ...................................................................................................... 29 1.1. Realpolitik and the Emergence of Alliances .................................................................... 31 1.2. Are States More Complex? Identity and International Politics ........................................ 36 1.3. The United States: Realpolitik? .......................................................................................