Road location in rugged terrain in Afghanistan. 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Tel: International +44 71–865 0066 Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries Edited by Bent Thagesen Technical University of Denmark E & FN SPON An Imprint of Chapman & Hall London · Glasgow · Weinheim · New York · Tokyo · Melbourne · Madras Published by E & FN Spon , an imprint of Chapman & Hall, 2–6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK Chapman & Hall, 2–6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN, UK Blackie Academic & Professional, Wester Cleddens Road, Bishopbriggs, Glasgow G64 2NZ, UK Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Germany Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2–2–1 Hirakawacho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan Chapman & Hall Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia Chapman & Hall India, R.Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras 600 035, India First edition 1996 This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge's collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” © 1996 E & FN Spon ISBN 0-203-22367-5 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-27782-1 (Adobe e-Reader Format) ISBN 0-419-20530-6 (Print Edition) Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. 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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 95–69212 Contents List of contributors ix Preface xii List of photographs and acknowledgements xiv 1 PART ONE Introduction 1 Highways and development 3 Britha H.Mikkelsen , Cowiconsult Ole Møller, The Danish Transport Council 22 PART TWO Highway Planning 2 Planning methods 24 Knud Rask Overgaard , Hoff & Overgaard 3 Economic evaluation 47 Ole Møller , The Danish Transport Council 4 The World Bank HDM model 68 Morten Steen Petersen , TetraPlan Arne Poulsen , Carl Bro 98 PART THREE Traffic Characteristics 5 Highway user behaviour 100 Jan Kildebogaard, The Danish Road Directorate 6 Traffic safety 121 N.O.Jørgensen, Technical University of Denmark 139 PART FOUR Geometric Design 7 Geometric design controls 141 Kent Falck-Jensen, Cowiconsult 8 Alignment 157 Kent Falck-Jensen, Corviconsult 9 Cross-section 183 Kent Falck-Jensen, Cowiconsult 196 PART FIVE Drainage 10 Hydrology 198 Jan M.Hassing, Cowiconsult 11 Hydraulic design 211 Alan R.Jacobsen, Cowiconsult 239 PART SIX Pavements 12 Soil investigation 241 Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 13 Tropical rocks and soils 266 Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 14 Earthworks and pavements 287 Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 15 Asphalt pavements 310 Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 16 Pavement design 333 Jørgen Kristiansen, University of Aalborg Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark Per Ullidtz, Technical University of Denmark 358 PART SEVEN Construction 17 Construction contracts 360 Tim Waage, Kampsax International 18 Construction supervision 373 Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark Tim Waage, Kampsax International 18.1 Introduction 375 19 Labour-based construction 396 J.de Veen, International Labour Office Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 423 PART EIGHT Maintenance 20 Maintenance operation 425 Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 21 Maintenance management 452 Richard Robinson, Independent Consultant Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 478 PART NINE Development Assistance 22 Development aid 480 Jes C.Boye-Møller, Danish International Development Assistance Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark 23 The project cycle 495 Jes C.Boye-Møller, Danish International Development Assistance 509 PART TEN Institutional Issues 24 Institutional strengthening 511 Paul S.Taylor, Cowiconsult 25 Training of staff 528 Richard Robinson, Independent Consultant Bent Thagesen, Technical University of Denmark Index 555 Contributors Jes C.Boye-Møller Danida Ministry of Foreign Affairs Asiatisk Plads 2 DK-1448 Copenhagen K Denmark J.de Veen International Labour Office 4, Routes des Morillons CH-1211 Geneve 22 Switzerland Kent Falck-Jensen Cowiconsult Parallelvej 15 DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Jan M.Hassing Cowiconsult Parallelvej 15 DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Alan R.Jacobsen Cowiconsult Parallelvej 15 DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark N.O.Jørgensen IVTB, Building 115 Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Jan Kildebogaard The Danish Road Directorate Niels Juels Gade 13 Postboks 1569 DK-1020 Copenhagen K Denmark Jørgen Kristiansen Aalborg University Department of Development and Planning Fibigerstræde 11 DK-9220 Aalborg Ø Denmark Britha H.Mikkelsen Cowiconsult Parallelvej 15 DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Ole Møller The Danish Transport Council Christian IX’s Gade 7 DK-1111 Copenhagen K Denmark Knud Rask Overgaard Hoff & Overgaard Granskoven 8 DK-2600 Glostrup Denmark Morten Steen Petersen TetraPlan Badstuestræde 8 DK-1209 Copenhagen K Denmark Arne Poulsen Carl Bro Granskoven 8 DK-2600 Glostrup Denmark Richard Robinson 51 Weltmore Road Luton LU3 2TN United Kingdom Paul S.Taylor Cowiconsult Parallelvej 15 DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Bent Thagesen (editor) IVTB, Building 115 Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Per Ullidtz IVTB, Building 115 Technical University of Denmark DK-2800 Lyngby Denmark Tim Waage Beijing Danhua Consultants 5th Building, 1st Zone Fang-Xing-Yuan Fang Zhuang, Fengtai District Beijing, 100078 People’s Republic of China Preface The main purpose of this book is to meet a pronounced need for a textbook on planning, design, construction, maintenance and management of roads and traffic in the traditional developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Most of these countries, which do not include the former Eastern Bloc countries, are situated in the tropics, where the natural conditions are different from related conditions in temperate regions. Also, the institutional issues and the financial problems confronting countries in the ‘South’ are usually different from the state of affairs in the ‘North’. However, most existing textbooks on highway engineering are geographically biased and based on experience from industrialized countries with temperate climates, or they deal with specific problems, for instance, soil stabilization or road building in the tropics. The aim of this book is to give a comprehensive account of the wide range of both technical and non-technical problems that may confront road engineers working in the Third World without giving a detailed coverage of methods and techniques. The book is designed primarily as a fundamental text for civil engineering students, but an additional objective is to offer a broader view of the subject for practising engineers. The book does not purport to address the safety problems associated with testing of road materials and construction and maintenance of roads. Readers are expected to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine applicability of national regulatory limitations prior to use of any method described in the book. The text has been written with the assistance of a number of professionals with many years of experience gained in Africa, the Middle East, Asia and Central America. The names of the writers of the different chapters appear in the list of contributors, in the table of contents and under the headings of the chapters. I am indebted to them all for their contributions. My thanks also go to Wendy Taylor who helped with the preparation of Chapter 24; to Poul Harboe and Per Kirkemann who wrote background material for Chapter 25; to Arne Poulsen and Robin MacDonald who scrutinized various chapters; to Dr. Richard Robinson who assisted with manuscript review, and to Sanne Knudsen who did the proofreading.