TERRORISM IN INDONESIA: AN EXAMINATION OF TEN RADICAL GROUPS Jolene Jerard A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 2015 Full metadata for this item is available in St Andrews Research Repository at: http://research-repository.st-andrews.ac.uk/ Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/10023/9324 This item is protected by original copyright TERRORISM IN INDONESIA: An Examination of Ten Radical Groups Jolene Jerard This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of PhD at the University of St Andrews 13 October 2014 1. Candidate’s declarations: I, Jolene Jerard hereby certify that this thesis, which is approximately 78,359 words in length, has been written by me, and that it is the record of work carried out by me, or principally by myself in collaboration with others as acknowledged, and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for a higher degree. I was admitted as a research student in September, 2011 and as a candidate for the degree of in January, 2012; the higher study for which this is a record was carried out in the University of St Andrews between 2011 and 2014. I, Jolene Jerard have not received assistance in the writing of this thesis in respect of language, grammar, spelling or syntax. Date 20 May 2015 signature of candidate 2. Supervisor’s declaration: I hereby certify that the candidate has fulfilled the conditions of the Resolution and Regulations appropriate for the degree of PhD International Relations in the University of St Andrews and that the candidate is qualified to submit this thesis in application for that degree. Date 20 May 2015 signature of supervisor 3. Permission for publication: (to be signed by both candidate and supervisor) In submitting this thesis to the University of St Andrews I understand that I am giving permission for it to be made available for use in accordance with the regulations of the University Library for the time being in force, subject to any copyright vested in the work not being affected thereby. I also understand that the title and the abstract will be published, and that a copy of the work may be made and supplied to any bona fide library or research worker, that my thesis will be electronically accessible for personal or research use unless exempt by award of an embargo as requested below, and that the library has the right to migrate my thesis into new electronic forms as required to ensure continued access to the thesis. I have obtained any third-party copyright permissions that may be required in order to allow such access and migration, or have requested the appropriate embargo below. 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Where part of a thesis is to be embargoed, please specify the part and the reason ABSTRACT The study is based on the hypothesis that there are forces of influence that push a group from extremism to terrorism. While not all groups make the shift to terrorism, there are inherent forces within the radical group that influence the course of action undertaken by groups. The study examines 10 radical groups in Indonesia and explores the question: How do ideology, leadership and group dynamics play a significant role in the radical groups in Indonesia? The study explored groups within a broad cross-section of terrorist and extremist groups that have either been in operation or are currently in operation in Indonesia The groups examined were Lashkar Jihad (LJ), Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), Darul Islam (DI), Front Pembela Islam (FPI), Negara Islam Indonesia (NII), Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HT), Majelis Mujahideen Indonesia (MMI), Jamaah Anshorut Tauhid (JAT), Al Qaeda Indonesia (AI) and Mujahideen Indonesia Timur (MIT). The study highlights that groups are able to sustain themselves on the path of terrorism if there is a unique confluence of a politicised ideology, presence of influential leadership and group dynamics. Based on 124 interviews and questionnaires of terrorist and extremist leadership and cadre, the study sheds light on unique dynamics within these groups in Indonesia. In an examination of the 10 radical groups, this study shows that the very factors that often influences the radicalisation of individuals on the pathway of terrorism – ideology, charismatic leadership and community affiliation through group dynamics also in turn influence the course of action of groups as a whole. DEDICATION To my family whom I have been dearly blessed with; my parents, Jerard and Janet and my brother Joshua, Thank you for allowing me to chase my dreams unencumbered. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “For God, For Family, For Country” Author’s Interview with a Member of Al-Qaeda in Iraq, Erbil, Iraq, 2009 It is indeed a discomforting realisation that in so many ways we are similar and in so many ways infinitely different from the subject of our exploration. For at the heart of some, is so deep a desire for a better tomorrow and world that is at peace, that every waking moment is dedicated to the creation of change. The path of peace and that of violence is but a fork in the road, often a choice with cascading implications undertaken with but a fleeting dream of a better tomorrow. In November 2009, I had the privilege of meeting with Professor Paul Wilkinson - an inspirational intellectual titan and a true visionary in the field of terrorism studies. After my presentation at a Workshop on Homeland Security Organisation in Defence Against Terrorism organised by NATO Centre of Excellence - Defence Against Terrorism (COED-DAT) Professor Wilkinson pulled me aside and asked me to think about pursuing my post-graduate degree at the University of St. Andrews. I remember telling him then that a post-graduate degree was not something that I had thought about at that time. He reminded me to follow my heart and that things would fall into place. When we parted ways after the course he gently reminded me once again - Don’t forget St. Andrews. I promised him then that I would think about furthering my studies. Unfortunately by the time I eventually got around and enrolled into the University of St. Andrews, Professor Wilkinson had passed on, approximately a month before I matriculated. I will continue to cherish the thought-provoking discussions and the lessons he had briefly shared during those few days. He was an icon in the field and man whose ideas will continue to influence the intellectual pursuit of scholars in this field for generations to come - just as he has (probably unbeknown to him through his gentle and spirited ways) influenced mine and my journey to this University. This journey has been a process that concomitantly amalgamates intellectual pursuit with a truly personal passage of self-discovery. It has been a journey that has reminded me of the people, who have inspired me and have tirelessly supported me along the way. To the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies at the Nanyang Technological University of Singapore and especially Professor Rohan Gunaratna, Head of International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research I am grateful for the continued support in making this journey possible. Very special thanks to my supervisors Dr. Peter Lehr and Dr. Robert Lambert who gave me clear direction and guidance through the fog of intellectual confusion. To treasured friends like Mr. Salim Mohamed Nasir, thank you for reminding me that the quest for intellectual pursuit must continue unyieldingly even in the depths of self- doubt and uncertainty. Through this journey, I am privileged and honoured to have met many men and women who have dedicated their lives in tireless sacrifice and service to their countries and to humanity. To Mr. Loh, Inspector General Pol. Dr. Tito Karnavian, Brigadier General. Pol. Dr. Mohammad Syafii and General (Purn) Dr. A. M. Hendropriyono, I owe my heartfelt gratitude, utmost respect and sincere appreciation. In the famous words of Ernest Hemingway, “It is good to have an end to journey toward; but it is the journey that matters, in the end.” Table of Contents ABSTRACT II DEDICATION III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND CHARTS 3 ABBREVIATIONS 4 CHAPTER ONE: THE INTRODUCTION 5 TERRORISM AND THE NEW SECURITY PARADIGM 6 PARADOX OF TERMINOLOGY 13 DRIVERS OF RADICALISATION 16 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 20 TERRORISM STUDIES: THE COMPLICATED AND THE COMPLEX 21 THE COMPLICATED: TERRORISM STUDIES THROUGH THE YEARS 22 THE COMPLEX: RADICALISATION THE PUZZLE OF OUR TIME 30 PROMINENT RADICALISATION MODELS AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS (1980S-2014) 34 KEY THEMES FROM RADICALISATION MODELS AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS 46 CHAPTER THREE: CASE STUDY OF INDONESIA 50 POLITICAL ISLAM AND THE INDONESIAN STATE 51 BOURGEONING TERRORIST