Edith Cowan University Research Online ECU Publications Pre. 2011 1981 Stars and telescopes : a resource book for teachers of lower school science Clifton L. Smith Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworks Part of the Science and Mathematics Education Commons Smith, C. (1981). Stars and telescopes : a resource book for teachers of lower school science. Nedlands, Australia: Nedlands College of Advanced Education. This Book is posted at Research Online. https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ecuworks/7034 Edith Cowan University Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorize you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement. Where the reproduction of such material is done without attribution of authorship, with false attribution of authorship or the authorship is treated in a derogatory manner, this may be a breach of the author’s moral rights contained in Part IX of the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Courts have the power to impose a wide range of civil and criminal sanctions for infringement of copyright, infringement of moral rights and other offences under the Copyright Act 1968 (Cth). Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form. � NEDLANDS COLLEGE of Advanced Education .. Stars and Telescopes T 522 SM! (WATCC) \ \ S T A R S AND T E L E S C O P E S S T A R S A N D T E L E S C O P E S A Resource Book for Teachers of Lower School Science by CLIFTON L, SMITH Graphics by G. Pollard Media Services Nedlands College of Advanced Education Stirling Highway NEDLANDS WA 6009 1981 C O N T E N T S AIMS AND OBJECTIVES 1 STAR GROUPINGS 3 TYPES OF STARS 9 TELESCOPES 11 PLAN I SPHERE 15 ASTRONOMICAL DATA BOOK 17 ANGLE MEASURERS 19 PROMINENT CONSTELLATIONS 25 OBSERVATIONAL ACTIVITIES 37 STAR MAPS AND DATA BOOKS 38 REFERENCES BOOKS 39 TEACHING AIDS •• 40 SUGGESTIONS FOR AN OBSERVATIONAL EVENING 43 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This resource book has been designed to meet the needs of teachers of lower school science who wish to gain experience in celestial astronomy in order to conduct an obser- vational evening for lower school science students. The material will be treated at an elementary level, and is intended for teachers who require the acquisition of knowledge, skills and experience in the space sciences. This resource book will consider: * Types of star groupings: double stars, binary stars, open star clusters, globular clusters, galaxies, and constellations. * Types of stars: main sequence stars, red giants, variable !:l;ars, white dwarfs, black dwarfs, and neutron stars. * Types of telescopes: prime focus, newtonian focus, cassegrain focus, coud� focus, and Schmidt design telescopes. * Teaching Aids: planispheres, angle measurers, star maps, celestial sphere, constellation simulator. Later, we will discuss celestial observations activities suitable f�r lower school science activity work by; * Naked eye observations: recognition of prominent constellations and stars, and the measurement of angular distances. 2 *Binocular observations: gross properties of celestial objects. *Telescope observations: detailed properties of celestial objects. 3 STAR GROUPINGS Stars tend to group in a variety of types of formations. These formations are usually the result of gravitational attrac- tion between the stars. Some stars are solitary, isolated occupants of space. However, most stars within a galaxy are associated with other stars. Several types of star associations occur, ranging from just several stars in the grouping to extremely large star clusters. 1. Binary Star System Most stars in our Galaxy are not solitary, but are bound by the force of gravity to one, and sometimes many, companions. About half of all star systems are binary or multiple systems. In binary star systems the two stars move around each other in elliptical orbits. Example: Alpha Centauri 4 2. Open Star Cluster Open star clusters, or galactic clusters, are loose and irregular aggregations of stars containing several hundred to several thousand stars. Individual stars in the open cluster are easily resolved with a telescope, and in some cases can be seen with the naked eye. Open clusters are mainly located close to the galactic plane, which is recognised as the Milky Way in the heavens at night. Examples: Hyades, Pleiades (Seven Sisters) • . • • • • • • • • 5 3. Globular Cluster Globular clusters are relatively tightly packed clusters of stars containing hundreds of thousands or millions of stars in spherical symmetry. Globular clusters are symmetrically distribu- ted around the nucleus of the galaxy. Stars in globular clusters are generally older than stars in the galactic arms. Examples: Omega Centauri and 47 Tucanae . .. .. /: . .. I o o ... • • • • • Globular clusters • • • • • + - 100 000 light years --+ 6 4. Galaxies Galaxies are now thought to be the basic unit of the Universe. That is, the Universe contains galaxies. Galaxies are celestial structures with a large number of stars gravitationally 11 held together. Typically about 1 x 10 stars compose a galaxy, with each star possessing a mass comparable to that of our Sun. Three major types of galaxies are observed. (a) Elliptical galaxies have stars symmetrically distributed in an ellipsoid, with dimensions differing from galaxy to galaxy. (b) Spiral galaxies possess the characteristic star spiral arms which sweep out behind the rotating galactic nucleus. Normal spiral galaxies have a central nucleus of stars with radiating spiral arms. Barred spiral galaxies have a distinct "bar" of stars through the nucleus, and from wh.ich two spiral arms trail. (c) Irrecular galaxies are generally smaller galaxies which do not possess structure or symmetry. Their shape is probably due to lack of rotation. The Large Magellanic and Small Magellanic Clouds are irregular galaxies close to our galaxy, the Milky Way. 7 5. Constellations Constellations are arbitary patterns of the brighter stars in the heavens. They do not portray real groupings of stars, which may be greatly dispersed at varying distances in space. The ancient mythological names have been retained in Latin form. Each star in the constellation is described by a greek letter of the alphabet, with a designated to the brightest star, e to the next brightest star, etc. For example, a Crux is the brightest star in the Southern Cross. l'i ll1 Iiij ,, i i :i , V> EARTH The famous southern hemisphere constellation of CRUX is composed of stars at varying distances from Earth. a Crux 300 light years e Crux 490 light years y Crux 200 light years 0 Crux 590 light years 9 TYPES OF STARS Stars are born from interstellar hydrogen gas and dust in the galactic arms. A gravitational collapse of the gas nebula causes the internal pressure and temperature to increase. When the temperature is sufficiently high (6 million K), fusion reactions commence converting hydrogen to helium and releasing enormous quantities of energy. The hydrogen fusion reaction is referred to as hydrogen burning, and the gas cloud is now a protostar. When the gravitational contraction forces are in equilibrium with the thermal pressure of the gas of the star, the star is then in its stable hydrogen burning phase. Our Sun is undergoing hydrogen burning, and is termed a Main Sequence star. After about 1 x 10 1° years, the hydrogen in the core will have been consumed and the fusion reactions cease. Gravitational collapse will recommence, further increasing the stellar central pressure and temperature. At about 30 million K helium fusion reactions begin, again arresting the gravitational collapse and distending the outer gas envelope of the star. This bloated outer envelope of gas will become cooler and hence redder, with an increase in stellar radius by a factor of 1000 . The star is now in the Red Giant phase. Further progressive gravitational collapses occur as core fuel depletes, produces fusion reactions for C, N, 0, etc, up to Fe. Iron is the terminating nuclide in the series as it does not undergo fusion reactions. During these phases of the burning reactions the star becomes unstable with its outer gas envelope expanding and contraction. The stellar object is now a Variable Star. 11 TELESCOPES The function of a telescope is to collect light from a celestial object and to focus this light to an image. Refracting telescopes achieve this outcome by means of a lens, while a reflect­ ing telescope employs a curved mirror. Reflecting telescopes use a parabolic mirror to minimise spherical aberration. Several optical configurations are possible to achieve the production of an image which can be focussed onto a photographic plate or viewed with an eyepiece� (a) Prime Focus Telescope The photographic plate or eyepiece is actually situated in the telescope tube. (b) Newtonian Focus 12 The Newtonian focus takes the light beam from the telescope tube by means of a plane mirror. This configuration requires the camera or eyepiece to be near the top end of the telescope tube. (c) Cassegrain Focus A second small convex mirror in the field of view focusses the image through a hole in the main reflector. This configuration is very convenient to use, however it reduces the light collecting aperture. - However the insertion of a small plane mirror in front of the primary mirror provides a cassegrain focus configuration with side viewing. 13 (d) Coude Focus An unfocussed image is reflected to a stationary observing station away from the telescope in a separate laboratory.