Science Looks at Spirituality CULTIVATING LOVING KINDNESS: A TWO-STAGE MODEL OF THE EFFECTS OF MEDITATION ON EMPATHY, COMPASSION, AND ALTRUISM by Jean L. Kristeller and Thomas Johnson Abstract. We explore the role of meditative practice in cultivat­ ing experiences of compassion, empathy, and altruiSfIl and address an apparent paradox: Meditation often is associated with solitary re­ treat, if not preoccupation with one's own concerns. How, then, does such a practice promote compassion for others? We propose a two­ stage model. The first stage involves disengagement from usual pre­ occupation with self-reinforcing, self-defeating, or self-indulgent behaviors and reactions; the second involves a focused engagement with a universal human capacity for altruistic experience, love, and compassion. Reference is made to the limited research literature and to clinical applications of loving kindness (metta) meditation in cul­ i tivating these processes. i Keywords: altruism; Buddhist psychology; compassion; empathy; I loving kindness; mindfulness meditation. "On our inbreath, we should concentrate on receiving life from God. That inbreath is life sustaining. On our outbreath we should give everything we have back to the universe. Our outbreath may be the last we ever take, and, at the end of our life, we want to make sure we have given everything we have back to the world. " -Jewish meditation (Verman and Shapiro 1996, 107) Jean 1. Kristeller is Professor of Psychology and Director of rhe Center for rhe Study of Health, Religion, and Spirituality at Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809; e­ mail [email protected]. Thomas Johnson is Associate Professor of Psychology and Associate Director ofthe Center for rhe Study ofHealth, Religion, and Spirituality at Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN 47809. [Zygon, vol. 40, no. 2 Oune 2005).] © 2005 by rhe )oinr Public.rion Bo.rd ofZygon. ISSN 0591-2385 392 Zygon Jean L. Kristeller and Thomas Johnson 393 Meditation, or contemplative practice, whether within Judeo-Christian or 2002, 90) and as an action where the goal is to benefit others (Monroe Eastern traditions, is strongly associated with spiritual growth. In this essay 2002). In practice, studies of altruism, whether in the laboratory (Batson we explore the role ofmeditative practice in cultivating experiences ofcom­ 2002) or in first-person narratives of those who have risked their lives to passion and loving kindness (a concept widely used in contemporary help others (Oliner and Oliner 1988), typically use some specific act of Theravadan Buddhism) and address an apparent paradox: Meditation is helping as an operational definition of altruism. Regardless of the exact often associated with solitary retreat, if not preoccupation with one's own definition used, altruism implies helping another without any expectation concerns. How, then, does meditation promote compassion for others? of reward or benefit in return (Monroe 2002; Oliner 2002). We propose a two-stage model. The first stage involves awareness of L. Underwood (2002) prefers the term compassionate love to the term habitual reactions and disengagement from the usual preoccupation with altruism. She claims that compassionate love implies a deeper "investment self-knowledg~ self-reinforcing, self-defeating, or self-indulgent behaviors and reactions. of self" and that such an investment requires and a free However, compassion also requires engagement or connection with oth­ choice to set aside our own personal agenda for the sake of the good of ers. Therefore, a second step in developing compassion or altruism via another person. Similarly, S. G. Post and colleagues note that for altruism meditation involves a focused engagement with a universal human capac­ to exist, "the view that the self is all that exists or can be known is tran­ ity for empathy and love. As C. D. Batson (2002) proposes for the empa­ scended" (2002, 3). Thus, self-transcendence is a necessary precursor to thy-altruism hypothesis, this model assumes that capacity for self-protection altruism. Empathy is also mentioned as a potential contributor to altru­ and capacity for compassion are separable human functions. As the self is ism, and some claim it is the primary source of altruistic ,behavior (Batson transcended, the mind may be opened more to the possibility of full en­ 2002; Feshbach 1997). Empathy frequently is defined as\"having an emo­ gagement with others. A key question is the extent to which engagement tional response similar to the response the other person is having" (Bohart with others happens automatically once the preoccupation with the self is and Greenberg 1997, 23). N. D. Feshbach (1997) emphasizes that empa­ loosened or whether it requires encouragement or explicit cultivation. thy includes not only the cognitive ability to take the perspective of an­ We address several related questions as well: What is the relationship other but also the ability to experience emotions. This definition thus between cultivation of compassion and cultivation ofother types of medi­ includes such responses as a sense of compassion for the suffering of an­ tation effects such as relaxation or behavior change? Are meditative tech­ other, feelings of connectedness or oneness with others, and agape, or un­ niques universal tools for developing the capacity for compassion? What selfish love. are the underlying mechanisms involved in creating this engagement? How The Buddhist concept ofloving kindness is similar to these definitions does the cultivation of self associated with contemplative practice trans­ in that one transcends preoccupation with one's own concerns and en­ form into the cultivation of relationships with others? Can meditation gages an experience of universal love and caring toward others. The Bud­ practice be used as a research tool for exploring the process of cultivation dhist sense of compassion (karuna) is distinguished by a focus on those of compassionate being and action? who are suffering by suspending sense ofself; furthermore, it encompasses Before addressing these questions we consider the definitions of com­ wise action to relieve such suffering, similar to altruism (Davidson and passion, empathy, and altruism as well as the Buddhist concept of metta, Harrington 2001). Apparent from this briefoverview is the universality of or loving kindness. We consider the underlying processes of meditation these concepts, and common to them all is the importance placed on the and then explore the role it may play in cultivating these experiences of replacing of self-concern with concern for others. It is this commonality compassion and altruistic behavior. among these concepts, rather than the differences, with which we concern ourselves here. COMPASSION, EMPATHY, AND ALTRUISM One of the problems with some of these definitions is that there is a confabulation of the quality of the experience with the "quantity" or de­ The terms compassion, empathy, altruism, and other similar terms (connect­ gree of feeling or action-that only profoundly substantial shifts in rela­ edness, compassionate love, agape) have sometimes been used interchange­ tion to selfand to others qualify to be labeled as empathic, compassionate, ably, but the terms refer to somewhat different but possibly overlapping loving, or altruistic. In fact, laboratory research (Batson 2002, for ex­ phenomena (Monroe 2002). In Buddhism, loving kindness (metta in Pali; ample) and research on empathic responding between individuals (Bohart maim' in Sanskrit) is distinguis'hed from compassion (karuna in both Pali and Greenberg 1997; Greenberg and Elliot 1997) focus on more mun­ and Sanskrit) (Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard, and Diener 1991; Brazier 1995). dane expressions of these experiences, presuming a continuity with more Altruism has been defined as a "motivation to benefit others" (Batson dramatic self-sacrificing actions. 394 Zygon Jean L. Kristeller and Thomas Johnson 395 For the purposes of this essay, we propose that it is the quality of the bolic mandala ofTibetan tantric practices, a Zen koan, or physical sensa­ experience rather than a particular degree ofexperience that is more useful tions experienced in Yogic postures. In contemporary practice, focusing to consider. Altruism involves helping another without regard for per­ on pain, on other physical sensations such as hunger or stress, or on inter­ sonal gain. Altruistic behavior occurs when one transcends attending to personal connectedness might be used, with the specific goal of first in­ needs of the self and experiences empathy, loving kindness, and connect­ creasing awareness and then modifYing the nature ofcognitive or emotional edness to others. On some occasions, the process of empathic involve­ response to these experiences. Although concentrative techniques are some­ ment may require suspending relatively modest self-needs (such as simply times considered a necessary foundation for use ofmindfulness techniques, being willing to inconvenience oneself to meet the needs of others); on and possibly directed meditations, contemporary practice is more flexible. other occasions, a willingness to undergo profound risk to one's well-being Learning simple concentrative techniques may facilitate mindfulness or may be involved. Yet all involve some degree ofsuspension ofself-engage­ directed techniques, and the basic elements of all three approaches can be ment, which we argue is necessary but not sufficient. easily learned by most people within a few weeks or