THE OPPRESSION OF WOMEN IN THE NOVELS OF SEMBENE OUSMANE AND TSITSI DANGAREMBGA by BENJAMIN LESIBANA MPHIKO A mini-dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts In the Discipline ENGLISH STUDIES in the FACULTY OF HUMANITIES (School of Languages and Communication Studies) at the UNIVERSITY OF LIMPOPO SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR O. J. ABODUNRIN 2016 Declaration I, Mphiko Benjamin Lesibana, declare that this mini-dissertation is my own personal effort. I have taken reasonable care to ensure that the work is original, and, to the best of my knowledge, there is neither plagiarism nor deliberate falsification of data as sources have been acknowledged. Any failure to provide full, proper citations should be attributed to inadvertent human error. Signed...................................................... Date......................................................... i Dedication This mini-dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Gerrie, our children, Seoka, Mankwafi and Malefšane and my sisters for providing me with unfailing support throughout my years of study and through the process of writing this work. It is also dedicated to the memories of my late parents, Rosina and France Mphiko and my late uncles-in-law, Dan and Simon Maifo, who, throughout their lives, gave me an appreciation for the importance of studying. ii Acknowledgements First, I am grateful to the Almighty God for the good health and well-being that was necessary to complete this study. I would also like to thank my supervisor, Professor O.J. Abodunrin, of the Faculty of Humanities, in the Department of English Studies at the University of Limpopo. Professor Abodunrin’s office door was always open whenever I had questions about my research. His capacity to combine intellectual rigour, erudition and inspiration with humour has facilitated the writing of this study. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. J.M. Mamabolo, Dr M.J. Mogoboya, Dr. R. McCabe and Mr. C. Akinola for their unwavering motivation and encouragement. I wish to express my sincere thanks to Mr. D. Segoapa for helping with some computing issues and Messrs. L. L. Seabi and M. R. Mathole of the Africana Section. Finally, I also extend my gratitude to Messrs. M. S. J. Mboweni and N. T. Mashabela for their untiring support and inspiration. Thank you and God bless you all. iii Abstract The primary aim of this study is to examine the oppression and repression of African women through the collusion of indigenous African patriarchy and colonial, imperialist values. The selected novels are Nervous Conditions (1988) and God’s Bits of Wood (1960) by Tsitsi Dangarembga and Sembene Ousmane, respectively. The study focuses on the roles played by both African and European values in the class, gender and racial oppression of African women. Using the theoretical frameworks of Marxism and Feminism, the study evaluates issues of women’s oppression, repression and marginalisation. The selected literary texts are closely analysed with a view to exploring and establishing the nature and form of African women’s multiple oppressions through the connivance between African patriarchy and European colonial hegemonic norms. Lastly, the study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the topical issue of African women’s oppression. Keywords: Colonial values; African patriarchy; Hegemonic norms; Oppression; Repression; Marginalisation; Collaboration; Women and the girl child. iv Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................................ 1 GENERAL ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background to the Study ................................................................................................... 2 1.2.1 The British and French Colonial Policies .................................................................... 2 1.2.2 The Entrenchment and Maintenance of Colonialism ................................................ 3 1.2.3 The Triple Oppression of Racism, Sexism and Class............................................... 4 1.2.4 African Males’ Collusion with Colonial Oppression ................................................... 4 1.3 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Delimitation of the Study ................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Definition of Key Terms and Concepts .............................................................................. 8 1.6.1 Eco-feminism ................................................................................................................... 8 1.6.2 Patriarchy ......................................................................................................................... 8 1.6.3 Commodification ............................................................................................................. 8 1.6.4 Reification ........................................................................................................................ 8 1.6.5 Comprador ....................................................................................................................... 9 1.7 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 9 1.7.1 Aim of the study .............................................................................................................. 9 1.7.2 Objectives of the study ................................................................................................... 9 1.8 Research Design and Methodology ................................................................................ 10 1.8.1 Examination of Primary Sources ................................................................................ 10 1.8.2 The study of Secondary Sources ............................................................................... 10 1.9 The Rationale of the Study ............................................................................................. 10 1.10 Literature Review on Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood and Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions ...................................................................................................................... 11 1.10.1 Sembene Ousmane’s God’s Bits of Wood (1960) ................................................... 11 1.10.2 Tsitsi Dangarembga’s Nervous Conditions (1988) .................................................. 14 1.11 Theoretical Approach ...................................................................................................... 15 1.11.1 Marxist Literary Theory ................................................................................................ 15 1.11.1.1 Definition .................................................................................................................. 15 1.11.1.2 Assumptions of Marxist Literary Criticism........................................................... 17 v 1.11.1.3 Methodology of Marxist Approaches to Literary Criticism ................................ 18 1.11.2 Feminist Literary Theory .............................................................................................. 20 1.11.2.1 Definition .................................................................................................................. 20 1.11.2.2 Assumptions of Feminist Literary Criticism ........................................................ 21 1.11.2.3 Methodology of Feminist Approaches to Literary Criticism ............................. 24 1.12 Ethical Considerations .................................................................................................... 26 1.13 Structure of the Study ..................................................................................................... 26 1.14 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................ 27 1.15 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER 2 .............................................................................................................................. 29 THE CONCEPT OF “COMMITMENT” IN AFRICAN LITERATURE ......................................... 29 2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 29 2.2 African Male Writers and the Concept of “Commitment” ................................................. 29 2.3 African Women Writers and the Concept of “Commitment” ............................................. 31 2.3.1 The Radical Marxist Feminists.................................................................................... 32 2.3.2 Liberal or Conservative Feminists .............................................................................. 34 2.4 Sembene Ousmane’s Aesthetics .................................................................................... 39 2.5 Tsitsi Dangarembga’s