Essential Histories The Wars of the Roses 1455-1485 OSPREY Michael Hicks PUBLISHING MICHAEL HICKS is Professor of Medieval History at King Alfred's College, Winchester. He holds three history degrees from English universities and has written extensively on the Wars of the Roses, mainly biographies of important protagonists such as Warwick the Kingmaker, False Fleeting Perjur'd Clarence and Richard III who shaped successive stages of the conflict. He is a regular contributor to history journals and to The Ricardian. PROFESSOR ROBERT O'NEILL, AO D.PHIL. (Oxon), Hon D. Litt.(ANU), FASSA, Fr Hist S, is the Series Editor of the Essential Histories. His wealth of knowledge and expertise shapes the scries content and provides up-to-the- minute research and theory. Born in 1936 an Australian citizen, he served in the Australian army (1955-68) and has held a number of eminent positions in history circles, including the Chichele Professorship of the History of War at All Souls College, University of Oxford, 1987-2001, and the Chairmanship of the Board of the Imperial War Museum and the Council of the International Institute for Strategic Studies, London. He is the author of many books including works on the German Army and the Nazi party, and the Korean and Vietnam wars. Now based in Australia on his retirement from Oxford he is the Chairman of the Council of the Australian Strategic Policy Institute. Essential Histories The Wars of the Roses 1455-1487 Essential Histories The Wars of the Roses 1455-1487 OSPREY Michael Hicks PUBLISHING a First published in Great Britain in 2003 by Osprey Publishing, For a complete list of titles available from Osprey Publishing Elms Court, Chapel Way. Botley. Oxford OX2 9LP please contact: Email: [email protected] Osprey Direct UK, PO Box 140. © 2003 Osprey Publishing Ltd. Wellingborough. Northants, NN8 2FA, UK. Email: [email protected] All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Osprey Direct USA. c/o MBI Publishing, Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of tbs publication PO Box I. 729 Prospect Avenue. may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in Osceola Wl 54020. USA any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, Email: [email protected] optical, photocopying, recording or otheiwise. without the prior www.ospreypublishing.com written permission of the copyright owner. Enquiries should be addressed to the Publishers. Every attempt has been made by the Publishers to secure the appropnale permissions for material reprocuced in this book. If there has been any oversight we will be happy to rectify the situation and written submissions should be made to the Publishers, ISBN I 84176 491 4 A CIP catalogue record for this boo< is available from the British Library Editor: Sally Rawlings Design: Ken Vail Graphic Design, Cambridge, UK Cartography by The Map Studio Index by Susan Williams Picture research by Image Select International Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging Leeds. UK Printed and bound in China by L. Rex Printing Company Ltd. 03 04 05 06 07 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Introduction 7 Chronology 9 Background to the wars Collapsing regimes 10 Warring sides Part-timers, professionals, and people 17 Outbreak Force for change 24 The fighting Dash to battle 30 Portrait of a soldier Nicholas Harpsfield 61 The world around war Life goes on 66 Portrait of civilians Female victims 78 How the wars ended Decisive victories 82 Conclusion and consequences Return to normality 87 Further reading 92 Index 94 King Edward IV, on his throne and attended by courtiers, receives a suitor (Ann Ronan Picture Library) Introduction The Wars of the Roses were the longest period were three periods of sustained conflict: of civil war in English History. They followed 1459-61, 1469-71, and 1483-87. immediately after the final English defeat in The loss of English occupied France made the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) and it difficult for Henry VI's government to commenced under the Lancastrian Henry VI resist its critics. Calls for reform by Richard (1422-61), a weak and ineffective king, who Duke of York (d. 1460) and the emergence of was briefly mad (1453-54). The wars did not two sides, Lancaster and York, several times end In 1485 at the battle of Bosworth, as so overflowed into violence before sustained many historians since the Tudors have conflict began in 1459. Defeated and exiled, claimed, and they did not actually cause the the Yorkists under Warwick the Kingmaker strong rule of the Tudors, although they may returned triumphantly in 1460 to present have made it easier to achieve. The Tudor York's claim to the Crown and thereby dynasty managed to keep the throne and provoked the most violent phase, from endured for more than a century. The last which there emerged York's son Edward IV serious challenge was in 1497, with the defeat (1461-83) as the first Yorkist king; Towton and capture of the pretender Perkin Warbeck, (1461) was the deciding battle. but the potential threat supposedly posed by Edward's new regime took until 1468 to the White Rose of York continued at least achieve recognition and to eliminate lingering until 1525. Lancastrian resistance in Northumberland, This book surveys these wars as a group north-west Wales and Jersey. Yorkist divisions and investigates them in detail. It treats the led to a coup in 1469 and the Lincolnshire international scene and the contexts of Rebellion of 1470, both led by Warwick and particular battles, and considers the impact of Edward's next brother, George Duke of the wars on English society as a whole and on Clarence (d. 1478). Defeated and exiled, as in particular individuals. It deals not with a 1459, the rebels allied later in 1470 with single war or campaign, but with a series of Lancastrian exiles and swept Edward away. conflicts spread over thirty years. Some of the Henry VI reigned again: his Readeption same issues are therefore examined separately (1470-71). With foreign support, Edward for each war. It concerns itself with what the exploited divisions amongst his enemies, wars have in common - the underlying causes decisively defeating first Warwick at Barnet and systems - and what is distinct about each. and then the Lancastrians at Tewkesbury The Wars of the Roses cannot simply be (1471); his triumph was complete. lumped together as a single conflict with Edward IV was succeeded in 1483 by his common objectives, sides and personnel. The eldest son Edward V, aged 12, but 11 weeks book looks at the causes, course, and the later Edward IV's youngest brother Richard results of each war. III seized the throne. He alienated many of the Yorkist establishment, who rebelled, apparently initially on behalf of Edward V, General summary who disappeared, and then Henry Tudor. Buckingham's Rebellion in 1483 failed, but The Wars of the Roses were a series of wars. the Bosworth campaign of 1485 did defeat Besides the minor clashes and also the lesser and kill Richard. Opposition to the new disorders that occurred in every reign, there regime and a plethora of Yorkist claimants 8 Essential Histories • The Wars of the Roses 1455-1487 and pretenders led to further rebellions, Concise summary invasions, and plots. The battle of Stoke in 1487 did not end the Yorkist conspiracies The first war was from 1459 to 1461, when against Henry VII (1485-1509) and even his King Henry VI was replaced by the Yorkist son Henry VIII (1509-47). Edward IV (1461-83). Originating in the call for reform and personal animosities, it became irreconcilable when Richard Duke of The place of the wars in history York laid claim to the throne. The Lords in London agreed that York should succeed The Wars of the Roses happened over 500 Henry VI on his death, thereby disinheriting years ago and created little if anything of the Henry's son Edward (the Accord). Lancastrian modern Britain familiar to us today, having supporters of Prince Edward rejected the causes particular to its time and to no other. deal, led by Queen Margaret of Anjou and It was not a significant stage in the Henry Duke of Somerset. Richard and development of the English monarchy, Edward Dukes of York were backed by constitution, society or military science. The Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, the best-known cause, the dynastic claims of Kingmaker (d. l471). rival sides, have little appeal to a modern age The second war was in 1469-71, that prioritises merit, democracy and equal beginning with Warwick's attempts to control rights; and yet the Wars of the Roses are Edward IV through imprisoning him (1469) surprisingly well-known. and then to replace him by Clarence (March One reason is the abiding influence of 1470). Exiled in France, the rebels allied with William Shakespeare, whose cycle of eight representatives of Henry VI - notably Queen fifteenth-century history plays - especially the Margaret, her son Edward, another Duke of masterpieces Richard II, Henry V and Richard Somerset and Jasper Tudor, Earl of Pembroke III - are constantly revived both in - invaded and replaced Henry on his throne performance and in film and continue to (October 1470). Next year Edward returned attract the best actors. Both Warwick the and exterminated his opponents. Kingmaker and King Richard III remain The third war was in 1483-87. Almost household names. Older generations were bloodlessly Edward IV's brother Richard III taught all periods of English history including (1483-85) deposed his son Edward V (1483).