ICES- El CENTEI El CEITER OF EXCELLENCE RESEARCH GRANTS & WORKING PAPER SERIES #8 AY2116-11 ) Supporting the Revolution: America, Democracy, and the End of the Cold War in Poland, 1981-1989 By Gregory F. Domber B. A. June 1997, Lafayette College A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of the George Washington University in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 31, 2008 Dissertation directed by James G. Hershberg Associate Professor of History and International Affairs Copyright© Gregory F. Domber 2007 For Mira ll Acknowledgments The following institutions and organizations provided funding for language programs and research trips which made this dissertation possible: American Consortium on European Union Studies Research Seed Grant Cosmos Club Foundation Young Scholars Award J. William Fulbright Student Scholarship Grant George Washington University Hoffmann Dissertation Award George Washington University Institute for European, Russian, and Eurasian Studies Travel Grant Kosciuszko Foundation Tomaszkiewicz-Florio Scholarship George C. Marshali/Baruch Fellowship Title VIII East-Central Europe Research and Language scholarship, administered by the American Councils for International Education Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars East European Studies Program Short-term Grant !11 Abstract Early on the morning of December 13, 1981, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the leader of the communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), declared martial law, ending the so-called "Polish Crisis," which began with the creation of the Independent Free Trade Union "Solidamosc" in August 1980. Over the next eight years, the Communist government and the opposition struggled over power, culminating in 1989 with the creation of a Solidamosc-led government which ended fifty years of Communist rule in Poland and led the way to further democratic revolutions throughout Eastern Europe. The purpose of this dissertation is to utilize newly available and underutilized archival sources as well as oral history interviews, from both international and American perspectives, to fully chronicle American policy toward Poland from the declaration of martial law until the creation of the Solidarnosc government. Rather than explaining Polish-American relations in bilateral terms, the dissertation illuminates the complex web of influences that determined American policy in Washington and affected its implementation within Poland. This includes descriptions of internal tensions within the Reagan administration, differences between American decisions in Washington and implementation in Warsaw, lobbying from Polish-American groups, clashes between Capitol Hill and the White House, coordination with American labor organizations to support Solidarnosc, disagreements with West European allies in NATO and international financial organizations, cooperation with the Vatican and the Polish Catholic Church, synchronization with American humanitarian organizations working in Poland, limitations caused by the realities of Soviet power in Eastern Europe, and complications caused by domestic Polish concerns. By taking a broad view of IV American policy and highlighting internal Polish decisions, with both the Communist ! · . government and the democratic opposition, the dissertation provides concrete examples of America's role in Poland's transformation, arguing, however, that this role was very limited. These conclusions are relevant to arguments abont the end of the Cold War, the nature of American power, as well as current discussions abont possibilities to promote democracy within hostile regimes. V Table of Contents List ofAbbreviations Introduction 1 I. "A watershed in the political history of mankind": The Reaction to Martial Law, December 1981 to January 1982 21 2. "We are a card in their game": American Policy toward Poland Takes Shape, January to September 1982 86 3. "Bilateral relations were about as cold as you can imagine": Diplomatic Stalemate, September 1982 to January 1985 160 4. "A Circle of Mistakes": International Pressures, Domestic Response, January 1985 to September 1986 244 5. "Very good and getting better": Reengagement and Reinforcement, September 1986 to February 1988 294 6. "Volatility in Poland's continuing drama": The Final Act, February 1988 to September 1989 369 Conclusion: The Question of American Leadership 445 Appendix 1: National Endowment for Democracy Funds Granted for Work Inside Poland, 1984-1989 489 Bibliography 496 VI Abbreviations Abbreviations in Text: AID: United States Agency for International Development APF: American Political Foundation BIB: Bureau for International Broadcasting CIA: Central Intelligence Agency CCC: Commodity Credit Corporation CMEA: see COMECON COMECON: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, also CMEA CPSU: Communist Party of the Soviet Union CRS: Catholic Relief Services CSCE: Commission for Security and Cooperation in Europe CSS: Committee in Support of Solidarity DCI: Director of Central Intelligence DOD: Department ofDefense EEC: European Economic Community EUR: Department of State Bureau for European and Soviet Affairs Ex-Im .Banlc Export-Import Bank FTUI: Free Trade Union Institute FY: fiscal year G-7: Group of Seven GSP: Generalized System of Preferences ICA: International Communications Agency IDEE: Institute for Democracy in Eastern Europe IMF: International Monetary Fund IPA: Independent Poland Agency KCEP: Komisja Charytatywna Episkopatu Polski or Charitable Commission of the Polish Episcopate KOR: Komitet Obrony Robotnik6w or Workers' Defense Committee MHZ: Ministerstwo Handel Zagranicznych or Ministry of Foreign Trade MSW: Ministerstwo Spraw Wewn~;;trznych or Ministry ofintemal Affairs MSZ: Ministertwo Spraw Zagranicznych orMinistry of Foreign Affairs NAC: North Atlantic Council of NATO NGO: non-governmental organization NSC: National Security Council NSDD: National Security Decision Directive NSPG: National Security Planning Group NSR: National Security Review OKN: Committee for Independent Education, Culture, and Science, from the acronym for Oswiaty, Kultura, Nauk OPIC: Overseas Public Investment Corporation OPZZ: Og6lnopolskie Porozumienie Zwiqzk6w Zawodowych or All-Polish Trade Unions Agreement PAC: Polish American Congress P ACCF: Polish American Congress Charitable Foundation vn PAX: Christian Social Association PIASA: Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences in America PISM: Polski Instytut Spraw Mil;dzynarodowych or Polish Institute for International Affairs PNG: persona non grata PRON: Patriotyczny Ruch Odrodzenia Narodowego or Patriotic Movement of.National Rebirth PWAF: Polish Workers' Aid Fund PZKS: Polski Zwiszek Katolicko-Spoleczny or Polish Catholic-Social Union PZPR: Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza or Polish United Worker's Party SB: Sluiba Bezpieczenstwo or Security Services SD: Stronnisctwo Demokratyczne or Democratic Party TKK: Tymczasowa Komisja Koordynacyjna or Interim Coordinating Commission TR: Tymczasowa Rade NSZZ "Solidarnosc" or Temporary Council ofNSZZ Solidarnosc UchS: Unia Chzescijmiska-Spoleczna or Christian-Social Union USIA: United States Information Agency WiP: Wolnosc i Pok6j or Freedom and Peace WRON: Wojskowa Rada Ocalenia Narodowego or Military Council of National Salvation ZOMO: Zmotoryzowane Odwody Milicji Obywatelskiej or Motorized Reserves of the Citizens' Militia ZSL: Zjednoczonne Stonnictwo Ludowe or United People's Party ZWID: Zespol Wideo or Video Association Abbreviations in Footnotes: AAN: Archiwum Akt Nowych or Archive of Modern Records AFL-CIO: AFL-CIO unprocessed records Amembassy: American embassy CBOS: Centrum Badanii Opinia Sp6leczny or Center for Public Opinion Research CRS: Catholic Relief Services Archive CSS: Committee in Support of Solidarity office files GMMA: George Meany Memorial Archives Hoover: Hoover Institution for War and Peace Archives ISPPAN: lnstytut Studi6w Politycznych Polski Akademii Nauk or Institute of Political Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences KART A: Karta Archives KM: Kolekcja Miedzeszyn or Miedzeszyn conference collection MSZ: Polish Ministry ofForeignAffairs Archive NED: National Endowment for Democracy Headquarters Library NSA: National Security Archive PAC: Polish American Congress office files . RRPL: Ronald Reagan Presidential Library SecState: Secretary of State VIII ) Introduction: Supporting the Revolution Early on the morning of December 13, 1981, General Wojciech Jaruzelski, the leader of the communist Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR), declared martial law, ending a sixteen-month period of openness, liberalization, freedom, and fluidity often referred to as the "Polish Crisis." The crisis began with the formation of the Independent Free Trade Union "Solidarnosc" in August 1980, and ended with Polish government forces implementing a nation-wide military operation to capture and intern thousands of Solidarnosc and affiliated activists. Martia11aw ended the Polish Crisis and brought a tense calm to the nation, but the opposition was not vanquished. Under the gaze of the United States and within the constraints of the bi-polar Cold War world, the Communist government and the opposition struggled over Poland's future for the next eight years. In 1989, officials from a PZPR-led coalition sat across a round table from Solidarnosc and Catholic Church leaders to negotiate a power-sharing agreement that directly led to semi­ free elections in the summer of 1989 in which a long-time Solidarnosc activist