North American Archaeology Two Possible Routes: Land or Sea? • Overwhelming archaeological and genetic evidence that New World populations originated in East Asia/Siberia. • Low sea levels during the LGM would have made it possible for people to walk across Beringia anytime before 11,000 years ago. • However, an “Ice Free Corridor” into mainland North America was only open after about 13,000 years ago. • People could have also migrated by boat along a Pacific coastal route. • How and when did people move into the New World? Scarre (2013) The Ancient One (Kennewick Man) • Well preserved skeleton excavated in Kennewick, WA in 1996. Radiocarbon dated to ca. 8,500 BP. • Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 – Federal museums and agencies must repatriate human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony. • Decades-long legal battle over repatriation. Several tribes claimed ownership. First Facial Reconstruction • Some anthropologists and scientist argued that the bones should not be reburied due to their scientific value. Some also used skeletal analysis to argue that he was physically dissimilar to Native Americans and that NAGPRA did not apply. • Ancient DNA confirms continuity between this skeleton and descendant communities living in the region today (Rasmussen et al. 2015). • Repatriated and reburied in February 2017. Second Facial Reconstruction Rasmussen, M. et al. (2015). The Ancestry and Affiliation of Kennewick Man. Nature 523 (7561): 455-458. Outline of Today’s Class: North American Archaeology 1) Mound builders of the Southeast and Midwest 2) Puebloans of the Southwest 3) Complex hunter-gatherers on the Pacific coast 4) The ethics of studying Native American DNA Mound Builders • 5,000 year tradition of mound building in Southeastern and Midwestern North America. • Some of the earliest and largest mounds in the New World. • Mounds primarily used for burial. Often built on top of structures with ritual significance. • Many mounds have been destroyed over the last 300 years. 19th Century photo of an Adena mound, Ohio Pre-Agricultural Mound Complexes and Earthworks Poverty Point, Louisiana (1,700-1,200 BCE) Watson Brake, Louisiana (3,500 BCE) North American Agriculture • Cultivation of goosefoot, mayflower, and sunflower by about 800 BCE. • Maize (corn) was introduced to eastern North America by about 100 BCE. • Maize agriculture is associated with an increase in mound building activity. Maize Goosefoot (Chenopodium) Sunflower The Hopewell Tradition (100 BC - 500 CE) aka “Hopewell Interaction Sphere” • Maize agriculture; burial mounds inside of earthen enclosures; long-distance trade and exchange. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/news/intriguing-interactions/ Mound City, Ohio Hopewell Mounds • Excavation of Hopewell mounds in the early 1890s for objects to display in the World’s Columbian Exposition (1893, Chicago). Micah talon and hand Excavations of Hopewell Mounds The Mississippian Tradition (1000 CE – 1,500 CE) • Urban ritual centers and smaller villages; platform mounds; maize agriculture; long-distance trade for elite goods. Stone carving from Cahokia showing a Chunkey game player. Monk’s Mound, Cahokia, Illinois Cahokia (1000-1400 CE) • Large urban center. Over 100 mounds covering six square miles. Monk’s mound covers the largest area of any mound in the New World. • Population size estimated between 3,000-20,000. Site organized into precincts with streets, ritual activity areas, public plazas, etc. • Mound 72: elite male burial with hundreds of sacrificial victims. Puebloan Societies of the Southwest (100-1600 CE) • Long distance connections and trade with Mesoamerica (ball courts, cacao, macaws, etc.). • Maize agriculture by 2000 BCE; mud brick architecture; “Kiva” circular rooms for rituals. • Precise dating of sites through dendrochronology. Wooden beams brought to population centers from miles away. Mesa Verde (650-1285 CE) Colorado Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon (900-1140 CE) New Mexico Complex Hunter Gatherers on the Pacific Coast (starting ca. 1150 CE) • Social complexity among hunter-gatherers such as the Chumash; craft specialization; long-distance trade between the Channel Islands, coast, and inland deserts. Olivella shell bead production Bead wasters made by apprentices Complex Hunter Gatherers on the Pacific Coast (starting ca. 1150 CE) Examples of grinding stones for acorn processing in California. Reclaiming History What are the Ethical Considerations for Ancient DNA Research in North America? • Centuries of tension between Native American groups, anthropologists, archaeologists, and scientists. • Ancient DNA from Kennewick Man and Anzick only confirms what native groups already knew about their ancestry. • In what ways should ancient DNA research consider perspectives of descendant communities? “Quids” (spit wads) from the US Southwest, Peabody Museum LeBlanc, S. et al. (2007). Quids and Aprons: Ancient DNA from Artifacts from the American Southwest. Journal of Field Archaeology 32: 161-175. Next time…Mesoamerican archaeology.