The Carnegie Image Tube Committee and the Development of Electronic Imaging Devices in Astronomy, 1953-1976 by Samantha Michelle Thompson A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Approved April 2019 by the Graduate Supervisory Committee: Karin Ellison, Co-Chair Jameson Wetmore, Co-Chair Jane Maienschein Richard Creath David DeVorkin ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY May 2019 ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the efforts of the Carnegie Image Tube Committee (CITC), a group created by Vannevar Bush and composed of astronomers and physicists, who sought to develop a photoelectric imaging device, generally called an image tube, to aid astronomical observations. The Carnegie Institution of Washington’s Department of Terrestrial Magnetism coordinated the CITC, but the committee included members from observatories and laboratories across the United States. The CITC, which operated from 1954 to 1976, sought to replace direct photography as the primary means of astronomical imaging. Physicists, who gained training in electronics during World War II, led the early push for the development of image tubes in astronomy. Vannevar Bush’s concern for scientific prestige led him to form a committee to investigate image tube technology, and postwar federal funding for the sciences helped the CITC sustain development efforts for a decade. During those development years, the CITC acted as a mediator between the astronomical community and the image tube producers but failed to engage astronomers concerning various development paths, resulting in a user group without real buy-in on the final product. After a decade of development efforts, the CITC designed an image tube, which Radio Corporation of American manufactured, and, with additional funding from the National Science Foundation, the committee distributed to observatories around the world. While excited about the potential of electronic imaging, few astronomers used the Carnegie-developed device regularly. Although the CITC’s efforts did not result in an overwhelming adoption of image tubes by the astronomical community, examining the design, funding, production, and marketing of the Carnegie image tube shows the many and varied processes through which astronomers have acquired new tools. Astronomers’ use of the Carnegie image tube to acquire useful scientific data illustrates factors that contribute to astronomers’ adoption or non-adoption of those new tools. i To Andrew Overhiser and Mike Janicek, for keeping me alive. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation has been an adventure and, at times, a struggle. Its completion would not have been possible without the endless support of many people, in many places. I would first like to thank my dissertation committee, especially my co-chairs Karin Ellison and Jamey Wetmore, who provided invaluable instruction, guidance, and feedback. Their unwavering support, encouragement, and humor kept me going through this process, whether I was 200 or 2000 miles from Tempe. I am grateful for the constant support of Jane Maienschein, who helped me focus my research in its early stages, and to Rick Creath, who brought me into the ASU family. I have over a decade’s worth of appreciation for David DeVorkin, who first introduced me to the world of image tubes. He has consistently been a mentor and I am so appreciative for all that he has taught me. I am grateful for many at ASU, who made the work towards this dissertation possible, especially Jessica Ranney and Tom Martin. At ASU, I benefited from employment opportunities and financial support from the Center for Biology and Society, the School of Life Sciences, and the Graduate College. For their archival research support, I thank the Smithsonian Institution, the Huntington Library, the AIP Niels Bohr Library and Archives and History Center, and the Carnegie Institution of Science, especially the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism. I am immensely thankful for the support of the curators at the National Air and Space Museum, especially to Margaret Weitekamp, Matt Shindell, and Tom Lassman who provided advice, guidance, and support. Many archivists went above and beyond to help me locate sources. To Jennifer Comins at the Columbia University’s Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Shaun Hardy at the DTM archives, and the entire staff at the Niels Bohr Library and Archives, I am forever grateful. At AIP, I would like to extend a special thank you to Greg Good and Stephanie Jankowski for their support as I worked to complete this dissertation. In the process researching and writing this dissertation, I had the opportunity to speak with astronomers whose efforts I chronicle in the following pages. I am grateful to them for their time and knowledge: Kent Ford, Vera Rubin, Bill Livingston, Tom Kinman, Steve Strom, Wes Lockwood, and Nancy Roman. iii I would like to particularly thank the staff at Lowell Observatory who supported me throughout this endeavor. Lauren Amundson has been the greatest colleague and friend and I will never be able to thank her enough for the help she has provided in the past seven years. I am additionally grateful for the support of Kevin Schindler, Antoinette Beiser, Deidre Hunter, Nick Moskovitz, and Will Grundy who made it possible to balance work and school. Additionally, Jamey Money, Ian Avilez, Tiffany Davs, and countless friends and colleagues supported me in this effort, and to them I am extremely thankful. The knowledge, guidance, and support given to me by Patrick McCray and David Munns cannot go unacknowledged. I will forever consider myself lucky to have been their student. Finally, I want to thank my family who always believed I could overcome any obstacle and accomplish whatever I set my mind to. Thank you to Mandy, Dustin, and Nora Sullivan for always giving me a place to call home, and to my grandparents, Bob and Jo Ann Thompson, for their love and support. Though they will disagree, without the love and support of my parents, Mark and Terri Thompson, this would not have been possible. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................................. vi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Background ................................................................................................................... 4 The Carnegie Image Tube Committee ...................................................................... 11 Scope .......................................................................................................................... 13 Chapter Elements ....................................................................................................... 16 2 IMAGING IN ASTRONOMY: THE ADOPTION OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES AND TECHNIQUES .................................................................................................................. 21 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 21 The Astronomer’s Eye and the Telescope ................................................................ 24 Sketching and Painting the Kky ................................................................................. 26 Photography and Objectivity ...................................................................................... 28 Applying the Photoelectric Effect ............................................................................... 32 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 41 3 FROM PHYSICIST TO ASTRONOMER: IRA BOWEN AND WILLIAM BAUM AND THE PUSH FOR ELECTRONIC IMAGING ............................................................................. 43 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 43 Ira Bowen: Physicist and Spectroscopist ................................................................... 47 Photoelectric Devices at Mount Wilson Observatory ................................................ 53 William Baum: World War II and Electronics Training ............................................... 54 Photoelectric Devices at Mount Wilson Observatory II ............................................. 59 A Conference to Investigate a Cooperative Photoelectric Observatory ................... 61 Electronic Imaging as an Aid to Astronomy ............................................................... 67 The Push for Image Tube Development at the Carnegie Institution ........................ 70 v CHAPTER Page Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 72 4 VANNEVAR BUSH AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CARNEGIE IMAGE TUBE COMMITTEE .................................................................................................................... 74 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 74 Vannevar Bush and Ira Bowen, Debating a Path Forward ....................................... 77 Bush Locates Resources: Appoints a Chairman and Secures private funding.......