00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page i Principles of Human Nutrition 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page ii 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page iii Principles of Human Nutrition Second edition Martin Eastwood Edinburgh, UK 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page iv © 2003 by Blackwell Science Ltd, First edition published 1997 by Chapman & Hall a Blackwell Publishing Company This edition first published 2003 by Blackwell Science Ltd Editorial Offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK Library of Congress Tel: 01865 776868 Cataloging-in-Publication Data Blackwell Publishing, Inc., 350 Main Street, Malden, is available MA 02148-5018, USA Tel: +1 781 388 8250 0-632-05811-0 Iowa State Press, a Blackwell Publishing Company, 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014-8300, USA A catalogue record for this title is available from the Tel: +1 515 292 0140 British Library Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd, 550 Swanston Street, Carlton South, Set in Times and produced by Gray Publishing, Victoria 3053, Australia Tunbridge Wells, Kent Tel: +61 (0)3 9347 0300 Printed and bound in Great Britain by Blackwell Wissenschafts Verlag, Kurfürstendamm 57, Ashford Colour Press, Gosport, Hants 10707 Berlin, Germany Tel: +49 (0)30 32 79 060 For further information on The right of the Author to be identified as the Author Blackwell Publishing, visit our website: of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the www.blackwellpublishing.com Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page v Contents Acknowledgements vii Chapter 1 Introduction and overview 1 Part I Factors influencing the food that a community eats 7 Chapter 2 History of food 9 Chapter 3 Social, population and environmental influences on nutrition 25 Part II Calculating how much food a community eats 33 Chapter 4 The food chain 35 Chapter 5 Nutritional requirements 51 Chapter 6 Nutritional epidemiology 62 Part III Factors influencing how an individual metabolises nutrients 71 Chapter 7 Genetics 73 Part IV Calculating the nutritional status of an individual 121 Chapter 8 Evaluation of dietary intake 123 Chapter 9 Measurements of energy 132 Chapter 10 Body composition 141 Part V Nutrients and non-nutrients 149 Chapter 11 Principles, amino acids and proteins 151 Chapter 12 Lipids 179 Chapter 13 Carbohydrates 195 Chapter 14 Dietary fibre 213 Chapter 15 Alcohol as a nutrient 224 Chapter 16 Vitamins 239 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page vi vi Contents Chapter 17 Plant secondary metabolites and herbs 304 Chapter 18 Water, electrolytes, minerals and trace elements 311 Chapter 19 Non-nutritive components of food 354 Chapter 20 Agricultural chemicals in the food chain 356 Chapter 21 Drugs and nutrition 382 Part VI Eating, digestion and metabolism 385 Chapter 22 Smell and taste 387 Chapter 23 Intake and satiety 399 Chapter 24 The gastrointestinal tract and food availability 406 Chapter 25 Carbohydrate digestion and absorption 418 Chapter 26 Protein absorption 427 Chapter 27 Lipid absorption 438 Chapter 28 Foetal and placental nutrition 452 Chapter 29 Thermodynamics and metabolism 458 Chapter 30 Mitochondria 466 Chapter 31 Cytochrome P450 475 Chapter 32 Free radicals 479 Chapter 33 Carbohydrate metabolism 486 Chapter 34 Lipid metabolism 510 Chapter 35 Eicosanoids 537 Chapter 36 Cholesterol and lipoproteins 543 Chapter 37 Amino acid metabolism 554 Chapter 38 Amino acid neurotransmitters 569 Chapter 39 Organ metabolic fuel selection 573 Chapter 40 Growth 583 Chapter 41 Bone 591 Part VII Special nutritional requirements and conditions 601 Chapter 42 Pregnancy, lactation and weaning 603 Chapter 43 Childhood and youth; middle age and old age 617 Chapter 44 Sport 632 Chapter 45 Nutrition in outer space 641 Chapter 46 Dietary deficiency 643 Chapter 47 Nutrition in the aetiology of disease 655 Index 673 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page vii Acknowledgements While the responsibility for this book is entirely I am grateful to Nigel Balmforth at Blackwell for mine, there are many people who have given help his kindness, understanding and support during the and encouragement: Neil Eastwood, Gill Poole, preparation of this new edition. Also his very sup- Janet Lambert, Ann de Looy, Bizan Pourkomail- portive staff. Robert Gray and his staff have been ian, Rosalind Skinner and Jon Warner. so helpful during the production of this book. 00 05/03/2003 10:52 Page viii This book is dedicated to Jenny for all the reasons she knows and without whom it would not have been possible. 01 05/03/2003 10:53 Page 1 1 Introduction and overview This book looks at nutrition as an exciting discipline All living creatures require a range of dietary that draws on all branches of biology. Nutrition is chemicals for metabolism, growth and activity. both an art and a science: it observes, measures and These chemicals are obtained from a range of tries to explain the constantly changing process of sources. The digestion, absorption and metabolism the optimal mix of chemicals necessary for the func- of ingested nutrients are determined in each indi- tioning of an individual at all stages of life. vidual by many factors, including inherited consti- This book is written at a number of levels to tution, gender, age, activity, growth, fecundity and encompass: lactation. A person needs an adequate energy intake as well as essential nutrients to provide for • traditional nutrition (Chapters 2–6, 8–17, 39–45) the needs and control of a genetically determined • evolving nutrition (Chapters 20, 22–26, 31–37, constitution (genome), which dictates protein and 46) enzyme structure and hence metabolism. This • complex concepts, which although not current- brings nutrition to a central role in the story. The ly central will influence the future of nutrition: synthesis, maintenance, functioning and control of an awareness of these will be necessary for the the protein complex and hence overall metabolism next generation of nutritionists (Chapter 7, and rely on ingested nutrients. parts of Chapters 11, 18, 19, 21, 27–30, 38). This book is written in the belief that the basis Take what is appropriate for your requirements of nutrition lies in molecular biology, genetic at different stages of your development in nutrition. make-up, biochemistry and physiology. Even the The selection, processing and manner of eating mysteries of the cooking art are dependent on food will be strongly influenced by what is available physicochemical transformations of raw food into and by the history, social stability and economy of available edible food. the community. What and how a person eats is sig- The book is divided into seven parts. nificantly affected by their family background and Parts I and II deal with food in the community. traditions, although travel is increasingly changing The first part deals with the historical influences food choices. War, pestilence and famine can that decide what food a community eats and how restrict food availability, and food may also be con- it is cooked. This is followed by a description of taminated by pollutants from the environment. those environmental factors that can adversely Being able to eat optimal amounts is dependent affect food availability. Part II looks at the calcu- on agriculture and the political, educational and lation of how much food a community requires and social organisation in which the person lives. The actually eats. The remaining parts deal with the chemical substances should be available in optimal individual. amounts and in an attractive form for metabolism. Part III looks at how a person metabolises Nutrition identifies, measures and recommends nutrients in an individual manner dictated by optimal dietary intakes of the nutrient chemicals in genetic make-up, then Part IV describes the health and disease. measurement of the individual nutritional status. 01 05/03/2003 10:53 Page 2 2 Introduction and overview Part V describes the core nutrients, essential, non- • The Internet essential and non-nutrients, and Part VI their selec- The manner in which written information is tion for eating, ingestion and subsequent digestion, handed on is changing rapidly with the avail- absorption and metabolism. Part VII looks at special ability of the World Wide Web. The printed nutritional requirements in the normal condition textbook can be seen as a primer, an introduc- and for some specific diseases. tion at varying levels of sophistication. From this At the end of each part there are key points for sound knowledge base educated forays can be understanding and learning, and thinking points. made into the Internet for retrieval of informa- Important references are listed at end of each tion. This book is intended to provide a good chapter. basic knowledge for such rewarding searches. It Some companion material relating to this is recommended that this book is supplemented book will be available on Blackwell Publishing’s by using Medline and other searches, e.g. web pages: please look at details of the book, Google or Metacrawler. These are a starter pack which can be found on the publisher’s website: and it is suggested that readers develop their www.blackwellpublishing.com. own list of favourite websites which can be upgraded. The website associated with this book will be kept up to date with new references LITERATURE and links. Navigating around the Internet is facilitated by the use of helpful search engines. Even so, the top 11 search engines only reach The enjoyable and productive analysis of the liter- 42% of the Web. The search engines can be ature is important, and there are many great books based on the directory model placing sites into and journals.