Frontier land and rural settlement in the upper Tigris river valley (south-eastern Turkey) from Roman to Byzantine age (second-sixth centuries AD) RODOLFO BRANCATO Department of Humanistic Studies, Catania University Abstract Southeastern Anatolia was one of the regions in which the Roman and Eastern empires fought for centuries for supremacy. In the fourth century CE, the Roman/Sasanian border shifted from the Euphrates River to the Tigris River: the upper Tigris River valley was thus embedded in the Eastern Roman frontier between the Roman and Sasanian empires. Changes in settlement patterns during the Late Antique period seem to confirm the limit of Roman control to the area West of the Batman River, one of the tributaries of the Tigris River in its upper course. The integration of new and legacy archaeological data available for this borderland may help in better understanding of local rural landscape and enable an analysis of the relationship between imperialism and the organization of borderlands. Keywords Upper Tigris River valley, Landscape archaeology, Frontier studies, Legacy data, Settlement patterns West & East 271 Monografie, 3 rodolfo brancato 1. Introduction digitised and geo-referenced, but must be pre- pared, and often manipulated, before they can be This article focuses on the Roman landscape of used in a digital environment».4 Their use for new the upper Tigris River valley, the area located in landscape archaeological research has been widely Southeastern Turkey between the modern town of considered in Mediterranean archaeology5 in the Bismil and the Cizre-Silopi plain: in the first half last few decades and recently in Near Eastern as of the first millennium the region was a contested well.6 When evaluating the current state of evi- frontier zone between the Roman and eastern dence for the upper Tigris River valley, clear diffi- (Arsacids then Sasanian) empires. Focusing on the culties connected both to the research methods changes in settlement patterns may contribute to and the quality of the documentation have to be describing the dynamic between the presence of the confronted: the surveys and excavations in question Roman army in the borderlands and its effects on were undertaken in different periods, using diffe- the local landscapes. The upper Tigris river region rent investigative methodologies for varying objec- lies at a crucial intersection between Anatolia and tives. This heterogeneous data was harmonized and Mesopotamia. Located between the Caucasus, the managed through the creation of a geodatabase. Syrian-Iraqi border, south-eastern Anatolia and The legacy data digitization was carried out with a western Iran, the region was affected by the relations diachronic perspective on the basis that changing between many North-South and East-West focused landscapes can be clearly understood only through political forces throughthe millennia.1 Due to its the longue durèe perspective. The resulting dataset position, at the end of the first millennium BC provided a vivid image of settlement patterns in Roman influence in the region was pervasive and the valley especially for the transition from third to expanding toward the East; throughout the first fourth centuries. half of the first millennium AD the landscape in the Legacy data for the region consists of survey upper Tigris river valley was intensively shaped by and excavation results of projects carried out in the its nature as borderland, to go by historical sources region throughout the twentieth century (fig. 1). and archaeological data.2 Archaeological research in the region started at a relatively late date – in 1963 with a joint study by Istanbul University and the University of Chicago 2. Legacy data for new landscapes under the directorship of H. Çambel and R.J. 7 research in Eastern Turkey Braidwood. In 1989, with the construction of a series of dams on the Turkish upper course of the Tigris, To examine these issues the range of legacy data G. Algaze became involved in the reconnaissance from published archaeological projects available of the Ilısu dam inundation zone. The survey areas for the region was analyzed.3 The term legacy data «essentially means that these data are not already 4 Allison 2008, p. 10. 5 Witcher 2008; Witcher, Craven 2012. 1 Marro 2004, pp. 91-92: throughout millennia, 6 For northern Mesopotamia, see Foietta 2018 on the region has been the stage of «ceaseless struggle between Hatra and its territory; Palermo 2019 for the region during western-focused and eastern-focused political entities since the Roman period. at least the foundation of the Seleucid Kingdom in 312 7 Benedict 1980. For earlier descriptions see Taylor BC. Occasionally, it has also been the stage of fierce conflict 1865; Maunsell 1901; Bell 1924; in his third volume of between southern-focused and northern focused polities, whether it be at the beginning of the first millennium BC, Eastern Turkey: An Architectural and Archaeological Survey (1989) T.A. Sinclair provided a valuable knowledge of the between the Neo-Assyrian Empire and the Urartu Kingdom, upper Tigris region and its roads, bridges, fortifications or at the end of the first millennium AD between Byzantium and other architecture dated to the first millennium AD; and the Arab Caliphate». his detailed description of the numerous Roman and Late 2 All dates AD unless otherwise specified. Roman cities, monuments and buildings established a basis 3 For a reassessment of legacy data for the upper Tigris for further topo graphical research, especially for the Medieval region see Brancato 2017. See also Brancato 2016, 2018. and Ottoman period. West & East 272 Monografie, 3 Frontier land and rural settlement in the upper Tigris river valley from Roman to Byzantine age Figure 1 Turkey, survey projects carried out in the upper Tigris River valley covered the lands running between the town of excavated by Turkish and foreign teams.12 Diffi- Bismil, located at the confluence of the Batman culties have arisen in evaluating the current state River to the Tigris, and the Cizre Silopi plain, en- of the archaeological evidence for the upper Tigris com passing the Garzan and the Botan River basins.8 region: the survey data on Roman, Late Roman Algaze’s team traced numerous Roman sites, some and Byzantine sites was amassed by a plethora of of which were rightly interpreted as elements of the distinct survey projects undertaken in different Late Roman defences along the Tigris River.9 periods, employing different methodologies and Archaeological research in the upper Tigris still not fully published. However, as D. Kennedy area resumed in 1997, coordinated by the Middle highlighted in 1996 «surveys have well-known East Technical University of Ankara (METU- limitations, some of which can be diminished by TAÇDAM). The Ilısu Dam Project’s aim was to selective excavation»13. With all this in mind, the record each archaeological site that would be sub- desirability of connecting the vast amount of legacy merged by the reservoir.10 In the thirty years since, with historical sources and excavation data in order more than 700 archaeological sites have been to get a better understanding of the local landscape recorded,11 from which thirty were selected to be in the first half of the first millennium was clear.14 8 Algaze 1989; Algaze, Rosenberg 1991; Algaze Schwartz, Ur 2008; Ökse, Görmüş, Atay 2011; Ökse et Al. 1991; Algaze, Hammer, Parker 2012. 2013a, 2013b; Parker, Creekmore 2002; Ur, Hammer 9 2009; Velibeyoğlu et Al. 2002. Algaze et Al. 1991, p. 191. 12 10 Tuna 2011, p. 309. For the Ilısu Dam Project see Tuna 2011, p. 304. Tuna, Doonan 2011 and related references. 13 Kennedy 1996. 11 Ay 2001; Barin, Akin, Sahin 2004; Benedict 14 After J.B. Ward-Perkins (1966), research on the 1980; Erim-Özdoğan, Sarialtun 2011; Laneri, Eastern Roman frontiers became highly developed: see Luttwak West & East 273 Monografie, 3 rodolfo brancato 3. The historical context 244, when the young emperor Gordian III (238-244) died in northern Mesopotamia, and his successor The shifting of the Roman frontiers east to the Philip the Arab (244-249) concluded a shameful Euphrates was a result of the campaigns led by the peace with Šapur I (240-272).21 In 296-298, Galerius emperor Septimius Severus.15 His Parthian Wars inflicted a crushing defeat on the Sasanian army led (195-198) resulted in the institution of the new by King Narseh.22 provinces of Osrhoene and Mesopotamia, as well as The resulting treaty between Romans and the creation of two new legions to garrison them.16 Sasanians was based on Diocletian and Galerius’s The province of Mesopotamia marched to the North desire to repair the territorial losses, which they not with Sophanene and Arzanene, at the time counted only succeeded in doing, but also (re)gained some among the Trans-Tigritane Provinces.17 Located in further territories:23 the Romans gained control the upper Tigris River valley, their territories were of the Sophanene, which at the time encompassed divided by the Nymphius river, the Roman name of Amida/ Diyarbakır, Nisibis, Singara and Bezabde, the Batman.18 and the Ingilene.24 Sasanians and Romans agreed In the third century, after the overthrow of that the Trans-Tigritane provinces were to be held Arsacid power, the Roman Empire had to deal by the Romans and that the River Tigris would be with the Sasanian dynasty.19 After a long phase of the boundary.25 Therefore, Diocletian planned new hostilities, the peace treaty of 298-299 was very fortifications at Amida and started the construction unfavourable to the Sasanians: the Romans assumed of roads within the region.26 complete sway over Mesopotamia, Armenia and In the fourth century, the upper Tigris River valley Iberia.20 Rome had lost its influence in Armenia in region was part of the Roman empire:27 Constantius II (337-361) built or restored several fortresses in the region – namely Amida, Tille, Cepha and 1976; French, Lightfoot 1989; Isaac 1992; Hanson 1989, pp.