THE LIMITS OF EUROPEANISATION AND LIBERAL PEACE IN CYPRUS: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL OF THE EUROPEAN UNION’S GREEN LINE REGULATION A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in the Faculty of Humanities 2017 Fadil Ersozer School of Social Sciences, Politics TABLE OF CONTENTS1 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................... 4 ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 5 DECLARATION .............................................................................................................................. 6 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT .............................................................................................................. 7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ 8 NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 9 LIST OF ABBREVATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................... 10 CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS .......................................................................................................... 12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 13 1.1. The Case Study and Contribution ..................................................................................... 13 1.2. Focus and Timeframe ........................................................................................................ 17 1.3. The Conceptual Framework .............................................................................................. 18 1.4. Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 19 1.5. Thesis Overview ................................................................................................................ 21 CHAPTER 2. INSIGHTS FROM EUROPEANISATION AND LIBERAL PEACE FOR THE CYPRUS CASE ..... 24 2.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 24 2.2. A ‘Fashionable’ Concept: A Review of the Europeanisation Literature ............................ 25 2.2.a. Europeanisation as a Concept ....................................................................................... 27 2.2.b. Europeanisation and EU Enlargement .......................................................................... 28 2.2.c. Europeanisation and Conflict Resolution ...................................................................... 33 2.3. ‘A Nearly Unrivalled Ideological Hegemony’: A Review of the Liberal Peace Literature .. 37 2.3.a. Empirical Findings about Liberal Peace......................................................................... 38 2.3.b. The Critiques to Liberal Peace ....................................................................................... 41 2.4. Operationalization of the Research .................................................................................. 44 2.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER 3. THE CYPRUS PROBLEM IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE AND THE EUROPEAN UNION’S ROLE ...................................................................................................................................... 50 3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 50 3.2. Evolution of the Cyprus Problem ...................................................................................... 51 3.2.a. From Christians and Muslims to Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots (1571 – 1960) .. 53 3.2.b. From the Unwanted Independence to Division (1960 - 1974) ...................................... 56 3.3. EU Accession of Divided Cyprus ........................................................................................ 63 3.3.a. The EU ‘Catalyst’ and Pre-Accession Inter-Communal Negotiations ............................ 63 3.3.b. Annan Plan Referendums: The Greatest Opportunity Missed ..................................... 67 3.4. The EU’s Post-Accession Involvement and its ‘Liberal Peace Project’ in Cyprus .............. 68 3.5. Reflections on Liberal Peace and Europeanisation: the EU’s Liberal Pace Project in Cyprus ........................................................................................................................................... 72 3.6. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 76 1 Word count: 77,482 2 CHAPTER 4. THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE MOVEMENT OF GOODS IN CYPRUS: PEACE THROUGH TRADE? ...................................................................................................................................... 78 4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 78 4.2. Turkish Cypriot Economy in the Shadow of International Isolations ................................ 80 4.3. The Green Line Regulation and the Movement of Goods in Cyprus ................................ 83 4.4. The Green Line Regulation in Practice: Movement of Goods in Cyprus ........................... 88 4.5. The EU effect on the Movement of Goods in Mediation of the Domestic Factors .......... 92 4.5.a. The Role of Legal Framework ........................................................................................ 93 4.5.b. The Role of Ethno-Politics in Political Elites .................................................................. 96 4.5.c. The Role of Ethno-Politics in Civil Society ................................................................... 100 4.5.d. The Role of Governance .............................................................................................. 104 4.6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 108 CHAPTER 5. THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE MOVEMENT OF SERVICES IN CYPRUS: THE LIMITS OF LIBERAL PEACE? ....................................................................................................................... 114 5.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 114 5.2. A Fertile Ground for Cooperation: The Two Service Based Economies of Cyprus .......... 116 5.3. An Inadequate Design: The Green Line Regulation and Movement of Services in Cyprus 119 5.4. Making No Headway: The Level of the Movement of Services in Cyprus ...................... 123 5.5. No Appetite for Cooperation: The EU effect on the Movement of Services and Mediation of the Domestic Factors .................................................................................................................. 129 5.5.a. The Role of Legal Framework ...................................................................................... 129 5.5.b. The Role of Ethno-Politics in Political Elites ................................................................ 132 5.5.c. The Role of Ethno-Politics in Civil Society ................................................................... 136 5.5.d. The Role of Governance .............................................................................................. 139 5.6. Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 142 CHAPTER 6. THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE MOVEMENT OF PERSONS IN CYPRUS: A PEACE PROCESS UNDER ‘CONTROL’? ................................................................................................... 147 6.1. Introduction .................................................................................................................... 147 6.2 Living ‘Side by Side’ but Not ‘Mixed’: Pre-Division Era in Cyprus ................................... 149 6.3. A Basic Design: The Green Line Regulation and Movement of Persons in Cyprus ......... 153 6.4. Mixed Results: The Level of Movement of Persons in Cyprus ........................................ 157 6.5. Another Battleground: The EU effect on the Movement of Persons and Mediation of Domestic Factors............................................................................................................................. 164 6.5.a. The Role of Legal Framework ...................................................................................... 164 6.5.b. The Role of Ethno-Politics in Political Elites ................................................................ 167 6.5.c. The Role of Ethno-Politics in Civil Society ................................................................... 171 6.5.d. The Role of Governance .............................................................................................. 174 6.6. Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 177 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................