ABSTRACT Reanimating the Graveyard: Heritage Tourism Development of North Carolina Shipwrecks By Valerie J. Grussing December, 2009 Chair: Joseph Fridgen, Ph.D. Major Department: Coastal Resources Management The shipwrecks of the Graveyard of the Atlantic are a prime subject for heritage tourism development in North Carolina. Education about these irreplaceable cultural resources, and effective interpretation of them, is critical for their protection and preservation. Development of interpretive means for shipwrecks would foster heritage tourism, which would serve to educate the public about archaeological resources, and promote local economies. However, these benefits must be balanced with sustainable use and protection of the resources. This study of heritage tourism development for North Carolina shipwrecks consists of a comparative evaluation of existing programs for shipwreck interpretation and protection. Evaluation is based on quantitative data, the qualitative measures of community involvement, effective interpretation, and active management, as well as each program’s tradeoffs and accomplishment of its stated goals. The outcomes are also assessed for their feasibility in North Carolina, based on its shipwrecks, physical environmental conditions, political climate and initiative, and other relevant factors. The ultimate product is a series of recommendations for North Carolina of alternatives that may be most effective and feasible. The selected programs represent a wide range of interpretive methods, and target diverse audiences. Four North Carolina programs are evaluated, all of which are recommended for continuation and expansion. Six programs from outside North Carolina are also evaluated, four of which are recommended for creation in North Carolina. Analysis of the policy implications of each program provides insight into how the recommendations may be approached to maximize their chances of successful implementation. The further development of heritage tourism programs along the North Carolina coast will have a significant positive impact on local communities and on the maritime heritage of the Graveyard of the Atlantic. The growth and expansion of programs designed to protect, preserve, and interpret shipwrecks would increase public stewardship of these irreplaceable cultural resources, and stimulate local economies via job creation and tourism. Reanimating the Graveyard: Heritage Tourism Development of North Carolina Shipwrecks A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Program in Coastal Resources Management East Carolina University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy By Valerie J. Grussing December, 2009 Reanimating the Graveyard: Heritage Tourism Development of North Carolina Shipwrecks By Valerie J. Grussing APPROVED BY: DIRECTOR OF DISSERTATION: __________________________________________ Joseph Fridgen, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: __________________________________________ Timothy J. Runyan, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: __________________________________________ Derek Alderman, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: __________________________________________ Lisa Clough, Ph.D. COMMITTEE MEMBER: __________________________________________ Brian A. Jordan, Ph.D. DIRECTOR OF THE PROGRAM IN COASTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: __________________________________________ Lauriston R. King, Ph.D. DEAN OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL: _________________________________________ Paul J. Gemperline, Ph.D. DEDICATION To the saints in my life: Matt, Mom and Dad, Lisa, Carolyn and Paul ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am pleased to thank Dr. Lauriston King for recognizing that a nontraditional program like CRM would be a good fit for me, and would help me achieve my goals, before even I knew what they were. Thank you also for the support I needed to make it through in one piece. NC Sea Grant provided an award to enable preliminary data collection. I appreciated the early opportunity to see the project’s significance in its context, and to gauge the interest of North Carolina scientists and managers. My sincere gratitude goes to the program managers, creators, and administrators who participated in data collection. Most of this information was not publicly available, and required numerous correspondences. Thank you to Richard Lawrence, Lora Holland, Dr. Della Scott-Ireton, Debra Shefi, Keith Meverden, Wendy Coble, Lauren Hermley, Dr. Mark Wilde-Ramsing, Dr. Victor Mastone, Joe Schwarzer, Clara Scarborough, Sarah Waters, Rob Powell, and Adam Kane for your help. Thank you to Dr. Mark Wilde-Ramsing and Sarah Watkins-Kenney at the QAR Project, and to Maria Jacobsen and Mike Scafuri at the Clemson Conservation Center for the opportunity to work on two of the coolest shipwrecks ever (and for all the tours). Thank you to Joe Uravitch and Lauren Wenzel at the MPA Center for hiring me pre- degree, and for giving me all the time and space I needed to finish. You both are a large part of what makes this a dream job. Thank you to Dr. Timothy Runyan for taking me under your wing and teaching me what it’s really all about, and for making sure I did the things and met the people necessary to maximize my potential (and for all the libations). Thank you to my mentor Dr. Brian Jordan for the pivotal opportunity at NOAA, and for always being available for advice (and for all the good eats). Thank you to Dr. Joseph Fridgen for all the support, both monetary and psychological. You helped turn my ideas into something, while helping me stay afloat, and you understand how creative minds frequently need to be corralled. And all this with kindness, patience, and sincerity; thank you. Thank you to the Cindirene’s Crew for making Ayden home; it will always be our home together. And thank you to Dave and Sherie, and Wayne and Susan for all the care and feeding. To Paul and Carolyn, and Wayne and Fern: I never dreamed I would travel 1,000 miles from home and find family there. I hope the future brings us closer together. To my sister and newfound best friend Lisa, who suddenly always knows when I need her: you have truly become an amazing lady and I am so proud of you. To Mom and Dad: you are an inspiration as parents, and have become treasured friends. Thank you for showing me what really matters, for giving all of it to me so selflessly, for always encouraging me to pursue my dreams, and for enabling me to do so. And finally to Matt, my husband, partner, best friend, drinking buddy, tech support, sous chef, cleaning lady, therapist, and my Superman: thank you for loving me. Full fathom five thy father lies; Of his bones are coral made; Those are pearls that were his eyes; Nothing of his that doth fade But doth suffer a sea-change Into something rich and strange. (Shakespeare, The Tempest) TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS .....................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiv LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................xv LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Chapter 2: Conceptual Framework – Heritage Tourism ......................................................5 Tourism and Sustainable Tourism ...................................................................... 5 Culture and Heritage ......................................................................................... 11 Cultural and Heritage Tourism ......................................................................... 16 Heritage Tourism Based on Archaeological Resources.................................... 23 Heritage Tourism as an Industry ....................................................................... 27 Chapter 3: North Carolina ..................................................................................................31 Coastal Geomorphology and Storms ................................................................ 31 Maritime Cultural Landscape ........................................................................... 42 Underwater Archaeology and the Diving Community ..................................... 54 Coastal Tourism ................................................................................................ 63 Chapter 4: Policy................................................................................................................67 Federal Regulations .......................................................................................... 67 North Carolina Regulations .............................................................................. 72 International Policy ........................................................................................... 74 The Policy Process ............................................................................................ 78 Chapter 5: Methods ............................................................................................................85 Chapter 6: Preserves and Trails .........................................................................................94 USS Huron Historic Shipwreck Preserve (NC) ................................................ 94 Background and Implementation .............................................................