The Psychopathological Foundations of Conspiracy Theorists By Darshani Jai Kumareswaran A thesis submitted to Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology. 2014 ii Abstract The primary aim of this thesis was to understand some of the factors that make an individual more likely to ascribe to conspiracy theories. Ascription to conspiracy theories was conceptualised dimensionally along a continuum labelled Conspiracy Theory Affinity (CTA). Strong CTA reflects both a high level of belief in conspiracy theories and a tendency to create conspiracy theories (conspiracy theorising). To gauge this, I measured level of conspiracy belief, conspiracy pattern perception (conspiracy theory creation), as well as various forms of psychopathology. The findings of the psychopathology study (study 4) suggested that high conspiracy theory affinity individuals are more likely to present with high levels of paranoia, delusion, general mental pathology, as well as a high level and range of schizotypal traits. The conspiracy theory literature has also suggested that a lack of control is germane to development and maintenance of the tendency to believe in conspiracy theories (Abalakina-Paap et al., 1999; Douglas & Sutton, 2008; Groh, 1987; Hofstadter, 1965; Leman, 2007; Newheiser, Farias, & Tausch, 2011; Swami et al., 2013; Sullivan et al., 2010; Whitson & Galinsky, 2008). The literature also suggests that one compensatory strategy commonly used to re-establish a semblance of control is illusory pattern perception. Illusory pattern perception or Apophenia, is when unrelated stimuli (either visual or situational) are perceived to be connected in some meaningful way. Therefore, I also sought to establish if a direct link between illusory pattern perception and CTA actually exists. In studies 1 and 2 I experimentally induced a sense of low control using methods that have proven effective in previous research. The findings of these studies suggested that a lack of control does not necessarily reflect that a person is more likely to engage in conspiracy pattern perception. However, the findings also suggested that when a low level of control is felt by an individual who also has a magical thinking style, they are more likely to demonstrate illusory visual pattern perception. Limitations of these studies and therefore their potential influence on interpretations of the findings were also considered. iii Another major research aim of this thesis was to elucidate how society perceives conspiracy theorists and how those with strong CTA perceive the label of conspiracy theorist. The findings of two studies (studies 3b and 5) revealed that the majority of respondents considered conspiracy theorists to be characteristically similar to those with current mental health concerns and also convicted criminals, and dissimilar to targets with resolved mental health issues and no current mental health issues (e.g. the average man). In contrast however, those with strong CTA rated the target Conspiracy Theorist significantly more favourably than those with low CTA. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings across these 5 studies are discussed, and methodological limitations are also acknowledged. iv v Acknowledgements Dedicated to Lily Kumareswaran 01/07/2004 – 27/07/2011 My PhD journey was not always a straight forward one, but I was constantly surrounded by the love and support of a number of people. I owe so much gratitude to my wonderful parents Kumar and Sivagini for their unconditional love and support. Even when I doubted myself, they did not and always urged me forward to achieve my goals. My parents have made incredible sacrifices for their children, and hopefully this thesis is a token of appreciation for what they have done for us. I would also like to thank my Grandmother Kamala Sivagnanasundaram, my brother Dinesh, and my sister-in-law Kavita for their support in so many ways including financially. I would also like to make a special mention of my Grandfather Kathiravelu Sivagnanasundaram, who despite the fact that he is no longer with us, his legacy of life-long learning and compassion for others are teachings I hold dear. I owe immense gratitude to my esteemed supervisors Associate Professor John McDowall and Associate Professor Marc Wilson, who have always ably guided me, reminded me of the bigger picture and where I was headed. I have the greatest respect for them both and the important work they do. I am also grateful for the inspirational academics I have been surrounded by over the past 12 years, who have always encouraged me to think and write critically. In particular I would like to thank Dr Carolyn Wilshire who supervised my Honours research, and Professor Tony Ward who has encouraged and guided me throughout my clinical training. I would also like to thank Ngaire Lavery and Patricia Stein who have offered me guidance, support, and hugs whenever I needed them throughout this journey. I am so indebted to you for your efforts in ploughing through all my paperwork. Of course I have some wonderful friends who have never given up on me despite the fact that I did not see them as often as I would have liked. Sue, Alana, Kari, Alex Skelton, Marieke, Stephie, Lorance, Matthew Weaver, Kirsty, Lu, Ness Rad, and Morgan vi (the best office mate in the world), Mohsen, and clinical psychology classmates, you have all been amazing to me. Thank you for the laughs and distractions when I needed them, and for always being an awesome cheering squad. A big thank you also to the Stewart Charitable Trust for the Kathleen Steward Postgraduate Scholarship they awarded me. Finally, to my darling Lily thank you for everything. Thank you for all those nights you stayed up late with me while I worked on this thesis that potentially only three people will ever read. Thank you for always making me laugh, and for loving me so purely. Words cannot describe how much I miss you and how much you mean to me. You will always be in my thoughts and my heart. This work, my baby girl, is dedicated to you. vii Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………. ii Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………….. v Table of Contents………………………………………………………………….. vii List of Tables………………………………………………………………………. xiii List of Figures……………………………………………………………………… xv Preface……………………………………………………………………………... xvii Chapter One: The Facets of Conspiracy…………………………………………. 1 Introduction: Why Study Conspiracy Theorists? ………………..…………... 1 The Dimensionality of Conspiracy Theory Affinity………………………..... 7 Conspiracy Theories as a Construct…………………………………………… 8 Content…………………………………………………………………. 8 Structure………………………………………………………………... 11 Function………………………………………………………………… 14 The Duties of Conspiracy Theorists…………………………………………… 20 Measurement of Conspiracy Theory Affinity………………………………… 21 Characteristics of Conspiracy Theorists………………………………............. 23 Summary………………………………………………………………………... 27 Chapter Two: Causality and Control ……………………………………………. 29 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 29 Locus of Control………………………………………………………………... 31 Learned Helplessness…………………………………………………………... 33 A Reformulated Model of Learned Helplessness……………………... 37 The Generalisability of Attributional Style…………………………………… 41 Global Attribution Style……………………………………………….. 41 Specific Attribution Style……………………………………………… 42 viii Personal Need for Structure…………………………………………………… 43 Consequences of Elevated Personal Need for Structure……………… 45 Schemas…………………………………………………………. 45 Avoidance………………………………………………………. 46 Correlates of High Personal Need for Structure………………………. 47 Summary………………………………………………………………... 49 Restoration of Subjective Control: Illusory Pattern Perception……………... 51 Apophenia……………………………………………………………… 53 Why does Apophenia occur? …………………………………. 54 Apophenia – Not Always a Case of Maladaption……………... 58 Study 1: Pattern Perception in Conspiracy Theorists………………………… 60 Magical Ideation………………………………………………………... 60 Hypotheses……………………………………………………………... 63 Method………………………………………………………………….. 64 Participants……………………………………………………... 64 Materials/Manipulation………………………………………... 64 Procedure……………………………………………………….. 68 Results…………………………………………………………………... 69 Modified Snowy Pictures Task………………………………… 72 Moderation Analysis…………………………………………… 72 Discussion………………………………………………………………. 75 Study 2: Mortality Salience and Illusory Pattern Perception………………… 83 Hypotheses……………………………………………………………... 89 Method………………………………………………………………….. 89 Participants……………………………………………………... 89 Materials………………………………………………………... 90 Procedure……………………………………………………….. 90 ix Results…………………………………………………………………... 91 Analysis of Variance……………………………………………. 91 Regression Analysis…………………………………………….. 95 Discussion………………………………………………………………. 96 Summary………………………………………………………………………... 100 Chapter Three: Public Perception of Conspiracy Theorists……………………... 103 Introduction……………………………………………………………………. 103 Study 3a: Semantic Differentials of Conspiracy Theorist Descriptors……….. 105 Method…………………………………………………………………… 106 Participants……………………………………………………... 106 Materials………………………………………………………... 106 Procedure……………………………………………………….. 107 Results……………………………………………………………………. 107 Discussion………………………………………………………………... 110 Study 3b: Attitudes Toward Conspiracy Theorists………………………........ 111 Hypothesis……………………………………………………………….. 111 Method…………………………………………………………………… 111 Participants……………………………………………………... 111 Materials………………………………………………………... 112 Procedure……………………………………………………….. 112 Recruitment using Facebook…………………………... 113 Student