The U.S. Government and Journalists’ Reactance to the News Coverage of the Iraq Wars A thesis presented to the faculty of the Scripps College of Communication of Ohio University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Master of Science Celia M. Shortt June 2010 © 2010 Celia M. Shortt. All Rights Reserved. This thesis titled The U.S. Government and Journalists’ Reactance to the News Coverage of the Iraq Wars by CELIA M. SHORTT has been approved for the E.W. Scripps School of Journalism and the Scripps College of Communication by Yusuf Kalyango, Jr. Assistant Professor of Journalism Gregory J. Shepherd Dean, Scripps College of Communication ii ABSTRACT SHORTT, CELIA M., M.S., June 2010, Journalism The U.S. Government and Journalists’ Reactance to the News Coverage of the Iraq Wars (112 pp.) Director of Thesis: Yusuf Kalyango, Jr. This thesis explores whether the government’s reactance to the media coverage of the 1991 Persian Gulf War led to the way in which journalistic independence was curtailed in the 2003 Iraq War. It also examines the undertone used in war reporting to determine how television networks shaped the war coverage, accounting for the government control of messages and restrictions of the media. A textual and observational analysis of CNN newscasts and Fox News coverage were conducted. This study found both positive and negative undertones from both networks’ coverage as a reaction to the government’s handling of the information about their war effort. This thesis builds a new theoretical perspective with two premises for conflict reactance. The U.S. government’s reactance to the negative media coverage of the 1991 Persian Gulf War was not as successful in totally restricting the negative undertone about its war efforts in the 2003 Iraq War from the networks’ anchor and correspondents; but it was partially successful at shaping the 2003 coverage by injecting some positive undertones in the live reports from the battlefield as a result of its embedded press system. Approved: _____________________________________________________________ Yusuf Kalyango, Jr. Assistant Professor of Journalism iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In light of this thesis marking a point in my life where I forgot what was behind and pressed on toward what was ahead, some acknowledgements are necessary: Yusuf , thank you for all your help with this project. It would not have been possible without it! Mom and Dad, thank you for everything you’ve done in my life and your phenomenal support. I would not be here without it. I love you! Libby and Cindy, thank you both for not letting me settle for less in my life. You are amazing sisters, and I love you both! Glen and Joel, thank you for always protecting your big sister! I love you! Michaela, Jeremy, Bill, Linda, Jon, Sarah, Hart, Rebecca, Jeff, Marcia, and Jon, thank you for always being there for me, no matter where I am! Finally, to my high school English teacher, Mrs. Barber, who did what no one else could, not even my mother, show me that I could write and enjoy it. I would not be here without you! iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv List of Figures ................................................................................................................ viiiii Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1: Scope and Context .................................................................................................. 2 1.2: Research Design ..................................................................................................... 3 1.3: Textual Analysis and Observational Approach ...................................................... 5 1.4: Justification ............................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 2: Theory Building ................................................................................................ 9 2.1 Research Model Themes ........................................................................................ 13 Chapter 3: Freedom of Information .................................................................................. 15 Chapter 4: Overview of the Conflicts ............................................................................... 19 4.1: Context Following the Vietnam War ..................................................................... 19 4.2: The 1991 Persian Gulf War ................................................................................... 20 4.3: The 2003 Iraq War ................................................................................................. 23 Chapter 5: Media Coverage of the War ............................................................................ 26 5.1: Cable News Network (CNN) and War Coverage .................................................. 26 5.2: Fox News and War Coverage ................................................................................ 28 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 31 Chapter 6: Methodology ................................................................................................... 32 6.1: Textual Analysis .................................................................................................... 33 v Conflict Reactance Model ............................................................................................ 36 6.2: Observation Analysis ............................................................................................. 38 Chapter 7: Results ............................................................................................................. 41 7.1:1991 Persian Gulf War ........................................................................................... 41 7.2: Reactance Themes with a Negative Tone .............................................................. 42 7.3: Reactance Themes with a Positive Tone ............................................................... 48 7.4: Sources and Technology ........................................................................................ 50 7.5: 2003 Iraq War ........................................................................................................ 52 7.6: Reactance Themes with a Negative Tone .............................................................. 53 7.7: CNN Coverage of the 2003 Iraq War .................................................................... 54 7.8: Fox News Coverage ............................................................................................... 60 7.9: Reactance Themes with a Positive Tone ............................................................... 65 7.10: CNN Coverage of the 2003 Iraq War .................................................................. 65 7.11: Fox News Coverage ............................................................................................. 68 7.12: Sources and Technology ...................................................................................... 72 Chapter 8: Discussion ....................................................................................................... 75 New Conflict Reactance Model .................................................................................... 76 8.1: Negative Undertones ............................................................................................. 77 8.2: Positive Undertones ............................................................................................... 85 8.3: Observational Analysis of Technology ................................................................. 88 8.4: Prospects – Advancing Reactance Theory ............................................................ 91 8.5: Limitations of Study .............................................................................................. 95 vi Chapter 9: Conclusion....................................................................................................... 97 References ......................................................................................................................... 99 vii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1: Conflict Reactance Model ...............................................................................36 Figure 2: New Conflict Reactance Model ......................................................................76 viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION The Persian Gulf War ushered in a new era of war reporting, particularly for the 24 hour cable news networks. For the first time, reporters were able to broadcast live from the battlefield when the U.S. military air strikes began in Iraq in 1991. This war became more visible and important to the public in the United States not only because of the conduct of the war, but also because of the way the war was communicated (Knightley 2004). The 2003 Iraq War continued that new era of war reporting from the Persian Gulf War. For the first time, journalists were systematically embedded with military combat units (Pfau et. al. 2004). The embedded journalists essentially lived, worked, and traveled with these units in order to provide in-depth coverage of