"Backwards Saints: The Jazz Musician as Hero-Figure in James Baldwin's 'Sonny's Blues' and John Clellon Holrnes' The Hom" STEPHEN BLAKE OLIVER B.A,H., Acadia University, 1996 Thesis subrnitted in partial fiilfiliment of the requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts Fnglish) Acadia University Fall Convocation 2000 O by STEPHEN BLAKE OLIVER, 2000 National Library Bibliothèque nationale 191 of,,, du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. nie Wellington Ottawa ON K1A ON4 Ottawa ON KIAON4 Canada Canada The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence allowing the exclusive permettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sell reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microform, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/nlm, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. 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Table of Contents Introduction .........................................................................................1 Chapter Two: The Jazz Musician and Mcan Amencan Writing ....................... -27 Chapter Three: The Jazz Musician and Beat Writing ...................................... -55 Conclusion.....~................................~....~.....~~...............................~..... 110 Works Cited....................................................................................... 120 Works Consulted ................................................................................. 123 Abstract This thesis examines the iconic jazz player as hero-figure in modern American fiction. It argues that the Afncan Amencan bop musician is an ideal Arnerican hero. To understand jazz's statu within American culture, the theorïes of Adorno and Murray are discussed. The jazz musician is then examined within Afiican hencan and Beat writing. In the former, the texts are Ellison's Invisible Man and Baldwin's "Sonny's Blues." In the latter, they are Kerouac's On the Road and Holmes' The Hom. The thesis asserts that the musician speaks to a marginalized audience and offers hope of transcending this marginalization. It argues that belief in transcendence is romantic, as is identification with a hero-figure. The writer, however, understanding that the human condition involves striving to reach impossible goals, displays the integrity of the musician as well as the integrity of the audience, inspired by the jazz performance to fulfill their dreams. 1would like to thank Dr. David Baron for dways being candid, intuitive, and supportive. 1would also like to thank my mother and grandmother, without whose support this thesis would not have been possible- "They are lÏke Iittle dead people for me, a Iittle like the heroes of a novel; they have washed themselves of the sin of existing. Not cornpIetely, of course, but as much as any man cm." -Jean-Paul Sartre, Nausea Introduction One of the most compelling types of music to emerge in the twentieth century was jazz. First played at the beginning of the century, jazz continues to be popular today within the United States and abroad. Jazz is not only an important art form for its musical ments, but also for its inkgration into other American artistic statements- Many artists have attempted to adapt the structure of jazz to their own respective media in various degrees. Amencan writers, ranging fiom Jack Kerouac to Amin Baraka, have used jazz's improvisational features in their own work.' Jazz has also played a role in Amencan writing by providing the subject matter for a considerable amount of both fiction and non-fiction. More specifically, the jazz musician bas often been treated as a hero-figure in these writings. A discussion of the jazz musician as an American literary figure must first examine both the role of jazz in Amencan culture and the role of the jazz musician within the jazz environment. To begin, it is necessary to understand jazz as one product of a pervasive American popular culture. In the year 2000, it is impossible to ignore the United States' role in shaping a popdar culture that is becoming increasingly globalized. In Uncornmon Peode: Resistance, Rebellion and Jazz, Eric Hobsbawn points out that the United States "penetrates, indeed dominates, the popular culture of the globe with the single exception of sport . ." (274). While one hundred years ago, the United States was only a looming threat to the Empire over which the sun never set, today it has taken the position of the sun, spreading its own culture across the world- The music, movies, and celebrities of the United States have only helped to reinforce and indeed strengthen its status as a fantasy ' Kerouac's Mexico Ciiv Blues is an excellent example, as is much of Baraka's poetry. Oliver 2 realm to millions across the globe- Even those who object to the United States for any number of reasons have undoubtedly been charmed by a Song here, or a movie there. So pervasive is the dominance of Amerïcan popular culture that the phenomenon is taken for granted. Of course the United States will outdo dl other countries in creating the "newest," "coolest," or (to be a little anachronistic) "hippest" cultural products. Its success in the culturai market can be largely attributed to a very simple but essential technological factor: throughout the twentieth century, it has been at the forefront of developing and supporting both recording and communication devices. Ironicdly, with the advent of the intemet and inexpensive digital equipment, those who have been heretofore silent will soon be capable of communicating to the rest of the world with amazing ease. Once this new technological revolution takes place, a term such as "pop culture" may seem as staid as "high art" did less than a ceatury ago- The Unites States, Iikewise, may not be as perennially successfid in producing what is fashionable- While cornputers may corne to define the parameters of the twenty-first-century popular artistic statement, the twentieth century relied on simpler technological devices for communication. Both the recorded picture and recorded sound dowed for the rapid distribution of an artistic statement to millions. Because of its relevance to this thesis, 1 will concentrate on the development of technology within the popular music industry. The technology that first launched America's pop music success was the appropriately named record, the radio, and the gramophone. With these devices, the music ùidustry was ready to be born. Music couid be recorded in the studio, it codd be advertised on the radio, and it could be sold to play on the gramophone at home.2 Hobsbawm calls the radio and the record, "the foundation of success in popular music," (276) and "crucial to the diffusion of Negro music ficm the 1920s . ." (265). Of course, such an infiastructure, while essential, does little to actually produce the appropnate climate for music-or the music itself. Capitalism provided the lubricant to run the whole industty (Hobsbawm 265-66). Producers were fkee to attempt to sell whatever their budget dowed, and consumers were fkee to buy whatever their budget permitted. Naturally, pop culture is a luxury item, a product whose industry could not exist but in successfül economies--a requirement that twentieth-century America easily fulfilled- Ultimately, the philosophy of the United States may outweigh any technological or economic factors when one considers the foundation of Arnerican pop culture- Simply put, the United States has supported (at Ieast in theory) the ide& of democracy and the nght to personal expression. As romantic as these ide& are, and regardless of how often they are not realized, the United States nonetheless continudly strives to meet the potential they offer. Because of this nationd ethos, every American has the right to indulge in a personal vision that will not oniy bring happiness to the individual, but-- ideally-to the entire country. The musician, then, is encouraged to offer his or her audience that vision, and the audience is encouraged to pick and choose the artistic statements to identm with what he or she fin& appealing. Such options, given at a pnce, represent the foundation of consumer culture. Naturally, some musicians have chosen not to participate in this supply and demand relationship. Indeed, as the pop music industry has developed, musicians have become increasingly weary of being controlled by an industry interested in economic considerations, not artistic ones. The proliferation of independent music labels over the Oliver 4 past twenty-five yem is a testament to this fac~~The level of independence that such labels hold within the industry is debatable; furthemore, "independent" musicians attempt to market and sel1 their music, even if they are doing so according to their persona1 aaistic principles. During the early stages of the music industry, when fewer avenues for recording and distributing music existed, the musician did not possess as many options for selling music. If the musician hoped to make a living (let alone become