Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media ISSN: 0883-8151 (Print) 1550-6878 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hbem20 How Television Viewers Use Social Media to Engage with Programming: The Social Engagement Scale Development and Validation Miao Guo To cite this article: Miao Guo (2018) How Television Viewers Use Social Media to Engage with Programming: The Social Engagement Scale Development and Validation, Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 62:2, 195-214, DOI: 10.1080/08838151.2018.1451856 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2018.1451856 Published online: 03 May 2018. Submit your article to this journal Article views: 13 View related articles View Crossmark data Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=hbem20 How Television Viewers Use Social Media to Engage with Programming: The Social Engagement Scale Development and Validation Miao Guo This study investigated social television viewing behavior by introducing the social engagement construct and validating its measurement scale. A total of 655 social media users in 2 online consumer panels were sampled to complete the 3-stage research strategy. Through conceptualization and operationalization of social engagement, this study identified 4 underlying dimensions in social engagement, i.e., vertical involvement, diagonal interaction, horizontal intimacy, and horizontal influence. These 4 dimensions represent a continuum in which audiences’ social engagement behaviors range from a lower level (vertical invol- vement) to a higher level (horizontal influence). The theoretical and practical implications of the social engagement construct were also discussed. With the growing adoption of digital mobile devices like smartphones, tablets, and laptops, and the rise and ubiquity of social media and interactive apps, social television viewing is emerging as a noteworthy phenomenon. Social television describes audience engagement, communication, and social interaction while watching television (Stamford, 2013). Mobile enhancement apps allow audiences to remotely comment and share their favorite shows with others. Social media create a new and powerful “backchannel,” fueling the renaissance of live broad- casts. Twitter and Facebook rank among the top social media that people tend to visit when they watch television. The degree of social interaction is even higher when it comes to “event television” like the Super Bowl or Academy Awards (Toy, 2010). This emerging pattern of social television viewing promises to enhance viewer engagement, extend the value of brands and content properties, and open up new advertising opportunities for media industries (CTAM, 2013; Guo & Chan-Olmsted, 2015; Harris Interactive, 2011). Social media, for example, offer a rare platform with attractive potential in improving audience engagement, marketing television content, Miao Guo (Ph.D., University of Florida) is an assistant professor in the Department of Telecommunications at Ball State University. Her research interests center on audience behavior, social media, and communication technology. © 2018 Broadcast Education Association Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 62(2), 2018, pp. 195–214 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2018.1451856 ISSN: 0883-8151 print/1550-6878 online 195 196 Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media/June 2018 and enhancing brand affinity. The engaged viewers in a multimedia environment are more likely to remember an advertisement, internalize the message, and be moti- vated by it than those who are less engaged (Epps, 2009). Given the supposed significance of social television viewing, this study seeks to investigate this phenomenon through developing the construct of social engagement. This investigation employs multiple research strategies, including three focus groups and two online surveys, to develop and validate the construct and its measurement scales. The nomological validity of these measures is assessed by examining relation- ships of social engagement to its close constructs of program attitude and program involvement. This study is concluded with some theoretical and practical implica- tions and directions for future research. Conceptualization of Social Engagement Viewer Engagement Social engagement in this study refers to the degree of interactions or connections that a viewer develops with television content through social media platforms over time. The core component of the construct, “social engagement,” is engagement. It was suggested that engagement is primarily driven by program content in the tele- vision consumption context, and the deepest engagement experience happens at the content level (Epps, 2009; Russell, Norman, & Heckler, 2004a). Askwith (2007) proposed that a television viewer’s overall engagement can be expressed as the sum of the viewer’s behavior, attitude, and desire in relation to given media, content, or advertising brand. Moreover, McClellan (2008) claimed that audience engage- ment is “a more passion-driven and more socially driven mode of watching televi- sion” across as many different platforms as possible. Russell et al. (2004a) proposed the connectedness construct akin to engagement to capture the parasocial relationship between television viewers and television pro- grams and characters. The authors defined connectedness as “the level of intensity of the relationship(s) that a viewer develops with the characters and contextual settings of a program in the parasocial television environment” (p. 152). In addition, the authors (2004b) emphasized the social nature of television viewing and developed the connectedness construct into three dimensions: vertical connections (viewer- program) described the commitment that individual viewers feel toward their favorite programs; horizontal connections (viewer-viewer) focused on the interpersonal rela- tionship that viewers form with others around the show; and vertizontal connections (viewer-character) defined the imagined and parasocial interactions that viewers develop with characters in their favorite programs. Considering the current cross-media video consumption pattern, Askwith (2007) revised Russell et al.’s(2004b) social interaction model, and further suggested that the horizontal aspect (viewer-viewer) of connections could be audience community building, which is facilitated and enabled primarily through Guo/HOW TELEVISION VIEWERS USE SOCIAL MEDIA TO ENGAGE WITH PROGRAMMING 197 the creation of online social groups and activities. The vertical interaction (viewer-celebrity) describes the increasing opportunities for individual audiences to interact with television celebrities, which is often facilitated by various social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook. The third aspect of social interaction is diagonal interaction (viewer-character). The author suggested that the present opportunities for diagonal interaction may include reality games and blogs. The above explication of the connectedness construct points out the socially inter- active nature of television viewing, and its multi-platform applications that are driven by a range of online platforms. Engagement with Online Platforms Audience/user engagement with different online platforms provides a useful lens to better understand social television viewing. Takahashi (2010) developed a model of social networking site engagement (e.g., Facebook). The first dimen- sion is information-seeking activity and selectivity, including seeking, collecting, and sharing information relevant to the daily life of close friends, school life, or general issues. The second dimension is connectivity, measuring connection formation among people and groups, transnational and trans-age connectivity. The third dimension of “bricolage” emphasizes the creation of “bricolage” of friends and manages their impressions with profiles. The last dimension focuses on participation characterized by involvement in various online communities. Yanga and Kangb (2009) proposed and validated a measurement scale of blog engagement, characterized as the likelihood and outcome of interactive blog communication. The authors suggested four attributes of blog engagement, such as contingency interactivity, self-company connection (the cognitive dimension), company attitude (the attitudinal dimension), and word-of-mouth (WOM) inten- sions (the behavioral dimension). Their study further concluded that interactive blogs can enhance self-company connection, positive attitudes toward the com- pany, and supportive WOM intention. When exploring the relationship between online engagement and advertising effectiveness, Calder, Malthouse, and Schaedel (2009)providedasystematic approach to measure online engagement through eight different online experi- ences, including stimulation and inspiration, social facilitation, temporal, self- esteem and civic mindedness, intrinsic enjoyment, utilitarian, participation and socializing, and community. The authors grouped these eight online experiences into two categories—personal and social interactive engagement. Specifically, personal engagement is manifested in experiences of stimulation and inspiration, social interaction, self-worth, intrinsic enjoyment, and utilitarian facilitated by the site. Social interactive engagement is motivated by participation, socializing, and community building. In summary, drawing upon prior studies of viewer/user engagement, it is suggested that the social engagement