Conceptual schemes and human (inter)action: disentangling fact and value for a broader vision Claudia Maria Anna Beatrice Isabelle Bonomelli Baisini Christ’s College July 2020 This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. This thesis is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my thesis has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the relevant Degree Committee. 2 Conceptual schemes and human (inter)action: disentangling fact and value for a broader vision Claudia M.A.B.I.B. Baisini This thesis investigates the role of conceptual schemes in shaping how we make sense of experience in human affairs. Conceptual schemes involve values and beliefs, assumptions and presuppositions that originate in past experience and, projected onto new observations, guide what is seen, what is considered salient, and what is overlooked or dismissed. Paradigms (in the sense of exemplars) and loaded concepts play a decisive role in these dynamics, which I explore through cases, each showing how an opposing pair of conceptual schemes leads to contrasting descriptions of what is apparently the same problem. Disagreement in the study and measurement of intelligence rests on contrasting conceptions of success, science, and education. Different characterisations of identity, power, and religion lead to seeing aspects of international relations and terrorism that involve different explanations. Finally, divergent approaches to criminal justice rest on contrasting conceptions of the human being that involve different views of responsibility, motivation, and rehabilitation. All approaches present their positions as matters of fact: intelligence does predict success; identity is defined by antagonism, or not; criminals do lack self- control. However, descriptive statements are often loaded with value. I propose disentangling descriptive and evaluative elements to reveal the specific features that are endorsed, or deprecated, when we use certain expressions. Disentangling increases awareness of what we do when we talk about a phenomenon in a certain manner; it shows what is presupposed and allows the critical examination of elements that have become tacit. Contrast with other conceptual schemes, and focus on difference, shows us where to look for disentangling and opens a venue to unusual ways of seeing. Uncomfortable as it may seem, engaging across different schemes, rather than seeking to transcend them, is thus proposed as a way to expand possibilities for understanding, and action. 3 To my Mother, the quintessential free spirit. To my Father, the wisdom of tradition. We need both. 4 Acknowledgements I am immensely grateful to my supervisor, Hasok Chang, whose intellectual sophistication is equalled by a great sense of humanity; I am blessed for the opportunity to work under his wise guidance. My department, History and Philosophy of Science, a cradle of stimulating, original and creative discussions, and Tamara Hug, who has been a pillar particularly in periods of despair. Yes, there are such periods when we write a doctoral dissertation. Tony Lawson, without whom this thesis would have not commenced, who encouraged me to find my voice, even though I did not turn out quite the realist that he was probably anticipating. I sincerely thank Arif Ahmed not only as co-supervisor, but also for the many challenging discussions that have stimulated the refinement of my ideas. We often agree to disagree, but this does not mean that our positions remain fixed; thanks to the challenge of disagreement, we reflect and change. Nicola Lacey and Simon Blackburn for a memorable viva; it has been an honour to have them as my examiners. My first Philosophy teacher, Maurizio Perini, for introducing me to the beauty and relevance of philosophy and, above all, for being a living example of the positive impact that educators can have on the life of their students. Quentin Skinner, whose work is a continuous source of inspiration, for his valuable advice and exciting conversations, not the least on the ‘concept of a concept.’ Christ’s College, my college, for providing a wonderful environment for its students and particularly my tutor, Helena Browne, and Louise Yirrell for their continuous support. Michael Mainelli for his valuable feedback in the final stages. The Swedish Defence headquarters and Forsvarshögskolan have contributed to funding this thesis, and I am particularly grateful to Irene Clement, Peter Thunholm, and Thomas Uneholt for their encouragement and moral support. Last, but not least, I thank my family, my incomparable sister, and little Gaia, who is a continuous source of joy and insight. 5 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... 5 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 1: Conceptual Schemes, Seeing, and Blinkering ...................................................... 13 1 Conceptual Schemes .......................................................................................................... 14 1.1 Dualism ...................................................................................................................... 15 1.2 Intertranslatability ..................................................................................................... 16 1.3 A Third Model ........................................................................................................... 18 2 My Proposal ........................................................................................................................ 21 3 Paradigms and Loaded Concepts .................................................................................... 24 3.1 Learning to See Through Exemplars ..................................................................... 24 3.2 Rhetorical Power ....................................................................................................... 26 3.3 Loaded Concepts and Action .................................................................................. 27 3.4 Assumptions and Blinkering ................................................................................... 31 4 Disentangling ...................................................................................................................... 32 5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 36 Chapter 2: Facts are Facts and Intelligence is IQ. .................................................................. 37 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 37 1.1 The Many Shapes of Intelligence in History ......................................................... 37 1.2 Emergence of a Paradigm ........................................................................................ 38 2 The Selective Scheme ........................................................................................................ 40 2.1 Mental Horsepower .................................................................................................. 40 2.2 Success ........................................................................................................................ 41 2.3 A Race Open to Everyone ...................................................................................... 42 2.4 Evolution: Natural Selection of the Best ............................................................... 43 2.5 Science is Objective and Value-Free ...................................................................... 43 2.6 Education Selects the Brightest and Prepares for Success ................................. 44 3 Disentangling the Selective Scheme ................................................................................ 45 3.1 Mighty Horsepower .................................................................................................. 46 3.2 Admiring Status ......................................................................................................... 46 3.2.1 Appreciating Control ........................................................................................... 48 3.2.2 Shameful Social Pathology .................................................................................. 49 3.3 Deserved Victory in a Fair Race ............................................................................. 49 3.4 The Objectivity of Science Crowns g ..................................................................... 50 3.4.1 The Excitement and Fulfilment of Finding Truths......................................... 50 3.4.2 Pride in Value-Free Science ...............................................................................