THE 2017 CATALAN INDEPENDENCE REFERENDUM: AN INTERPLAY BETWEEN POLITICAL ELITES AND CIVIL SOCIETY A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY SEREN ERGAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION SEPTEMBER 2019 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Sadettin Kirazcı Director (Acting) I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Ayşe Ayata Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Pınar Köksal Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Ayşe Ceylan Tokluoğlu (METU, SOC) Prof. Dr. Pınar Köksal (METU, ADM) Assist. Prof. Dr. Şebnem Yardımcı-Geyikçi (Hacettepe Uni., SBKY) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Seren Ergan Signature : iii ABSTRACT THE 2017 CATALAN INDEPENDENCE REFERENDUM: AN INTERPLAY BETWEEN POLITICAL ELITES AND CIVIL SOCIETY Ergan, Seren M.Sc., Department of Political Science and Public Administration Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Pınar Köksal September 2019, 133 pages This thesis explores the role of the Catalan political elites and the two most prominent Catalan civil society organizations, Assemblea Nacional Catalana – ANC (Catalan National Assembly) and Òmnium Cultural (All Cultural) on the transformation of the Catalan national movement that experienced a turning point in 2017 with an unofficial Catalan independence referendum. To that end, the historical background of the relations between Catalonia and Spain as well as the speeches of two Catalan presidents, Artur Mas and Carles Puigdemont are analysed by also looking at some of the relevant quantitative data which show the support for independence. This study argues that the speeches of the political elites had a significant impact on the shift of the Catalan national movement from a pro-autonomy stance to a pro-independence one. With the instrumentalisation of cultural/linguistic, economic and political/institutional arguments, the Catalan political elites led to the mobilization of the civil society thanks to the active role played by the above-mentioned civil society organizations. As a result of this active role, the Catalan independence referendum had serious consequences such as strict divisions in the Catalan society, suspension of the iv autonomy of Catalonia, and the imprisonment of the Catalan politicians and the leaders of the civil society organizations. Since the international actors were not in favour of the Catalan independence, the Catalan independence movement could not maintain its momentum. For the Catalan national movement to achieve its objectives without being worse off, ending the contentious relationship with Spain via an open dialogue is essential. Keywords: Catalonia, Nationalism, Secession, Political Elites, Civil Society v ÖZ 2017 KATALAN BAĞIMSIZLIK REFERANDUMU: SİYASİ ELİTLER VE SİVİL TOPLUM ARASINDAKİ KARŞILIKLI ETKİLEŞİM Ergan, Seren Yüksek Lisans, Siyaset Bilimi ve Kamu Yönetimi Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Pınar Köksal Eylül 2019, 133 sayfa Bu tez, 2017 yılında resmi olmayan bir bağımsızlık referandumuyla bir dönüm noktası yaşayan Katalan milliyetçi hareketinin dönüşümünde Katalan siyasi elitlerinin ve önde gelen iki Katalan sivil toplum örgütü olan Katalan Ulusal Meclisi ve Òmnium Cultural’ın rolünü araştırmaktadır. Bu amaçla, Katalonya ve İspanya arasındaki ilişkilerin tarihsel arka planı da göz önüne alınarak, iki Katalan hükümet başkanı, Artur Mas ve Carles Puigdemont’un konuşmaları bağımsızlığa olan desteği gösteren ilgili nitel veriler yardımıyla analiz edilmiştir. Bu çalışma, siyasi elitlerin konuşmalarının, Katalan ulusal hareketinin özerklik yanlısı duruşundan bağımsızlık yanlısı bir duruşa geçişi üzerinde önemli bir etkisi olduğunu savunmaktadır. Kültürel/dilsel, ekonomik ve politik/kurumsal tartışmaların araçsallaştırılmasıyla, Katalan siyasi elitleri yukarıda belirtilen sivil toplum örgütlerinin oynadığı aktif rol sayesinde sivil toplumun harekete geçmesine neden olmuştur. Sonuç olarak, Katalan bağımsızlık referandumu, Katalan toplumunda sert bölünmeler, Katalonya özerkliğinin askıya alınması ve Katalan politikacıların ve sivil toplum örgütü liderlerinin hapsedilmesi gibi ciddi sonuçlara yol açmıştır. Uluslararası aktörler de Katalan bağımsızlığını desteklemediği için Katalan vi bağımsızlık hareketi ivmesini koruyamamıştır. Katalan ulusal hareketinin amaçlarına zararlı çıkmadan ulaşabilmesi için, İspanya ile arasındaki çekişmeli ilişkisine açık bir diyalog yoluyla son vermek esastır. Anahtar Kelimeler: Katalonya, Milliyetçilik, Ayrılma, Siyasi Elitler, Sivil Toplum vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Pınar Köksal for her guidance, endless support and encouragement. Without her valuable feedbacks and warm personality, I would not be able to complete this thesis. I am also grateful to my examining committee members Prof. Dr. Ayşe Ceylan Tokluoğlu for her continuous interest, support and invaluable suggestions, and Assist. Prof. Dr. Şebnem Yardımcı-Geyikçi for her valuable time and insightful critiques. I want to thank my best friend Gamze Musluoğlu Boylu for always being there for me with her good heart and irreplaceable friendship. I thank my precious friends Ali Berkcan Boylu and Işık Orçun Denemeç for making my life full of joy and friendship. I also wish to thank my emotional supporter Selen Eltan for her endless support. I express my biggest gratitude to my mother, father, and brother, Yasemin, Cengiz, and Gökçe Ergan, who have always supported my choices and who have given everything to contribute to who I am today. I also thank to my sister İvgen Ceyda Ergan and my nephew Ege Batuhan Ergan. But I especially thank my mother for always having my back and accompanying me with her book in hand during those stressful nights of study. Sorry for all the inconvenience. I love you all so much. I also want to thank my second family, Necla Uyanık, İbrahim Uyanık, Onur Uyanık, Ayça Uyanık, Candan Yalçın and Nurcan Yalçın for their love and support. Lastly, I want to express my huge gratitude and love to my personal advisor and biggest supporter İbrahim Kaan Uyanık for always standing by my side and mentoring me with an endless patience throughout this long and challenging journey of mine. Without your presence I would not be able to come this far, finish this thesis and look forward. You have always been more than a boyfriend to me and I am the luckiest person to have you in my life. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM ........................................................................................................ iii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................... iv ÖZ .......................................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................ ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 1.1. The Scope of the Thesis & Argument ............................................................ 1 1.2. The Significance of the Topic .......................................................................10 1.3. Theoretical Framework .................................................................................12 1.4. Outline & Methodology ................................................................................17 2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CATALAN-SPANISH RELATIONS ........19 2.1. Catalonia before the Spanish Empire ............................................................19 2.2. Catalonia under the Rule of the Spanish Empire ...........................................21 2.2.1. The First Stage of Repression: Decrees of Nueva Planta (New Foundation) .................................................................................................22 2.2.2. Catalanism as a Cultural Movement: The Renaixença (Rebirth) .........24 2.2.3. The Emergence of the Catalan Political Movement ............................25 2.3. Catalonia during the Fall of the Spanish Empire: El Desastre (The Disaster) ..............................................................................................................26 2.3.1. Transformation of the Catalan Political Movement into Nationalism ..27 2.3.2. The Second Stage of Repression: Primo de Rivera Dictatorship (1923- 1930) ...........................................................................................................28 2.4. Acquisitions of Catalonia with the Second Republic until the Civil War .......29 2.5. The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) and the Franco Period ...........................30 2.5.1. The Third Stage