An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience COMPANION WEBSITE This book has a companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bergslien/forensicgeoscience with Figures and Tables from the book An Introduction to Forensic Geoscience Elisa Bergslien, PhD Associate Professor Buffalo State College Buffalo, NY, USA A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication This edition first published 2012 © 2012 Elisa Bergslien Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell. 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QE38.5.B47 2012 363.25–dc23 2012002695 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Set in 11.5/13 pt Plantin by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited 1 2012 Contents List of Tables and Figures, vii 5 Sand: To See the World List of Color Plates, xxv in a Grain of Sand, 132 List of Cases, xxviii An Introduction to Sand, 137 Preface, xxx Characterizing Sand, 139 Acknowledgments, xxxii Surface Features, 152 Sample Collection, 155 1 A Brief History of Forensic Science Sample Preparation, 156 and Crime Scene Basics, 1 The Stereomicroscope, 157 Scene of the Crime, 14 Forensic Examination of Sand, 157 Processing the Crime Scene, 16 Common Minerals, 159 Types of Evidence, 20 Less Common Minerals, 160 Further Reading, 22 Opaque Minerals, 160 References, 23 Anthropogenic Materials, 160 Summary, 163 2 Minerals: The Basic Building Blocks Further Reading, 165 of Geology, 24 References, 166 Mineralogical Fraud, 24 6 Gems and Gemstones: Those Most Minerals, 29 Precious of all Minerals, 168 Types of Bonding, 34 An Introduction to Gemstones, 170 Mineral Groups, 43 Crystal Forms, 171 Properties of Minerals, 46 The Petrographic Microscope, 175 Summary, 62 Light and the Optical Properties Further Reading, 62 of Minerals, 177 References, 62 The Forensic Identification of Glass, 182 More Optical Properties, 187 3 Rocks: Storybooks Isotropic versus Anisotropic Minerals, 191 of the Earth, 63 Anisotropic Crystals, 193 The Rock Cycle, 65 Other Important Properties of Gems and Properties of Rocks, 67 Gemstones, 201 Igneous Rocks, 69 Identifying Gems and Gemstones, 202 Sedimentary Rocks, 78 Organic Gemstones, 216 Metamorphic Rocks, 93 Summary, 218 Summary, 102 Further Reading, 218 Further Reading, 102 References, 218 References, 102 7 Soil: Getting the Dirt on Crime, 220 4 Maps: Getting a Sense of Place, 103 Introduction to Soils, 223 Global Location Systems, 104 Soil Horizons, 223 Maps in the United Kingdom, 115 Soil Origins, 225 The Global Positioning System, 115 Phyllosilicates (Sheet Silicates), 227 Maps, 117 Some Important Clay Minerals, 231 Remote Sensing and Other Resources, 127 Soil Classification, 237 Summary, 130 Soil Color, 237 Further Reading, 130 Soil Moisture, 242 References, 131 Particle Size, 243 vi Contents Sample Collection, 245 Scanning Electron Microscope, 368 Simplified Manual Dry Sieve Method Is It Legal to Take This Fossil?, 378 for Particle Size Analysis, 246 Rare-earth Elements, 379 Soil Classification Schemes, 249 Summary, 379 Soil Survey Maps, 251 References, 380 USDA Textural Classification, 252 10 Geology and People: Forensic The ASTM Unified Soil Classification Anthropology and Forensic System (USCS): D-2487, 253 Archeology, 383 Scene Examination, 256 Locating Ground Disturbances, 384 Visual Examination of Soil Evidence, 256 Search, 385 Examination Procedures for Geophysical Tools, 390 Soil Samples, 257 Magnetometry, 390 An Introduction to X-ray Diffraction Electrical Resistivity (ER), 400 Spectrometry (XRD), 264 Electromagnetic Induction (EMI), 408 Interpreting a Diffraction Pattern, 272 Specialized EMI: Metal Detectors, 411 Summary, 279 Ground-penetrating Radar (GPR), 412 Further Reading, 279 Search and Post-search Operations, 423 References, 279 Elemental and Mineralogical Analysis of 8 The Geology of Art, 281 Human Bone, 424 Geologic Media and Art Forgery, 285 Summary, 428 Mineral Pigments, 287 Further Reading, 428 Black Pigments, 289 References, 428 White Pigments, 290 11 Environmental Forensics: Tracking Earth Colors: Red, Yellow, Orange, and Pollution to its Source, 431 Brown Pigments, 295 Water: Our Most Precious Natural Blue Pigments, 298 Resource, 433 Green Pigments, 302 Surface Water, 434 Collecting a Sample for Microscopic Clean Water Act, 436 Examination (McCrone, 1982), 305 CERCLA and SARA, 440 Raman Spectroscopy, 307 Groundwater, 440 Chromatography, 312 Contaminant Hydrogeology, 448 Inks, 314 Safe Drinking Water Act, 450 Summary, 314 Water-quality Measurements, 450 Further Reading, 314 Field Water-quality Measurements, 452 References, 315 Water Contamination, 455 9 Fossils and Microfossils: Analytical Techniques for Chemical Traces of Life, 317 Fingerprinting, 462 Geologic Time and Index Fossils, 317 Isotopes in the Environment, 463 An Introduction to Fossils, 322 Summary, 470 A Brief Introduction to the Classification References, 471 of Fossils, 329 Invertebrate Paleontology, 332 Index, 472 Micropaleontology, 354 Color Plates appear between pages Collection and Treatment, 358 224 and 225 COMPANION WEBSITE This book has a companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bergslien/forensicgeoscience with Figures and Tables from the book List of Tables and Figures * indicates tables and figures that are located on the companion website. Tables Chapter Two Table 2.1 Approximate elemental composition of the continental crust. 44 Table 2.2 Mohs’ scale of hardness. 48 Table 2.3 Common crystal habits. 50 Table 2.4 Listing of the physical characteristics of common or important minerals (short version). 58 Chapter Three Table 3.1 Classification of hand samples by rock type. 68 Table 3.2* Phaneritic feldspathic rocks with quartz. Table 3.3* Phaneritic feldspathic rocks with feldspathoids. Table 3.4* Phaneritic ferromagnesian rocks. Table 3.5* Aphanitic feldspathic rocks with quartz. Table 3.6 Simplified field identification scheme for common igneous rocks. 76 Table 3.7 Field classification of igneous rocks. 77 Table 3.8 Modified Udden–Wentworth scale for sediments and associated rock types. 81 Table 3.9 Simplified scheme to relate sedimentary rock types with environments. 85 Table 3.10 Field classification of sedimentary rocks. 88 Table 3.11 Index minerals in the Barrovian zones with pelitic protoliths. Index minerals are in bold. 96 Table 3.12 Metamorphic facies and associated mineral assemblages. 97 Table 3.13 Field classification of metamorphic rocks. 98 Chapter Four Table 4.1 Abbreviations for geologic periods. 128 Chapter Five Table 5.1 The size range of sedimentary particles. 137 Table 5.2 Udden–Wentworth grain size scale. 140 Table 5.3 Verbal descriptions for skewness. 144 viii List of Tables and Figures Table 5.4 Phi standard deviations and sorting terms. 146 Table 5.5 Terms and examples of sphericity. 148 Chapter Six Table 6.1 Immersion liquids of known refractive index (20–22 °C). 181 Table 6.2 Refractive indices of some commercially available testing liquids. 186 Table 6.3 Average refractive indices of some common types of glass. 186 Table 6.4 Indices of refraction and axes. 197 Table 6.5 Physical properties of gems and gemstones. 203 Table 6.6 Optical properties of gems and gemstones. 207 Chapter Seven Table 7.1 Soils produced from common parent materials. 226 Table 7.2 Sieve numbers and mesh sizes in SI units. 245 Table 7.3* Timetable for pipette sample pulls. Table 7.4* Example pipette analysis data sheet. Table 7.5 USDA and USCS grain size scales. 252 Table 7.6* Criteria for describing soil consistency. Table 7.7* Criteria for describing soil structures. Table 7.8 Optical properties of common or important minerals, based on standard 0.03 mm thin-section preparation. 260 Table 7.9 Inter-atomic spacing of three largest peaks for several common minerals. (A more complete version of this table is available on the companion website.). 275 Chapter Eight Table 8.1 Composition of four lead white pigment particles using an electron microprobe. 295 Table 8.2 Characteristics of some common mineral pigments. 308 Chapter Nine Table 9.1* Most common Trilobite orders. Table 9.2 The most important types of microfossils.