ETHNICITY, GOVERNANCE AND SOCIO – ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA: A CASE STUDY OF KENYA AND ITS LUO COMMUNITY, 1963 – 2013 ALBERT GORDON OTIENO OMULO STUDENT NUMBER: 3523464 A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor Philosophiae in Public Policy and Administration, in the School of Government, University of the Western Cape Supervisor: Senior Professor John J. Williams November 2017 KEYWORDS Ethnicity Governance Development Africa Kenya Luo Nyanza Globalists Kenyatta Odinga ii http://etd.uwc.ac.za ABSTRACT “Ethnicity” and disparate group-based socio-economic development make governance in Africa problematic. Despite this existential reality, the “ethnic” question in African governance remains, largely, only the subject of general discourse. There appears to be very little rigorous scholarship on the economic and socio-cultural dimensions related to the socio-historical construct, “ethnicity”. Similarly, attempts to explain why African political culture, in general, continues to encourage the social reproduction of “ethnic” identities also appear to be largely lacking. This thesis aims to fill some of the gaps existent in scholarship of ethnicity vis-à-vis socio-economic- cultural development by examining the antagonism between the Luo community and the Kenyan state. Its main objectives are to examine the specifics of the socio-economic consequences of the political marginalization of the Luo and to explain why “ethnicity” is, seemingly, strongly correlated with the crisis of state power in Kenya. This thesis is grounded on the following two major assertions: first, that “ethnicity”, like its correlative, “race”, is an ideological concept, devoid of any scientific substance; second, that “ethnicity” is an “exogenous construct”, imposed on aboriginal people of Africa mostly by European colonizers. The following research questions direct this thesis: What are the specifics of the negative socio-economic consequences of political marginalization within the Kenyan context? Why do the Kenyan governing structures and practices persist in promoting “ethnicity” despite its existential problems for particular social groups? This thesis tests the following five research assumptions/hypotheses: i) the Luo have enjoyed minimal public investment from the Government of Kenya because of opposition politics making them relatively poor compared to other communities; ii) political exclusion, during the period under study, has had the unwitting effect of fostering “ethnic” cohesion amongst the Luo; iii) political exclusion at the national level has translated into economic difficulties at the individual level for the Luo, limiting their chances of ever getting to power in Kenya; iv) the Luo are gradually adopting alien cultures in uniform/homogeneous fashion, owing to politically constructed and mobilized stereotypes and prejudices, to gain acceptance as fully- fledged members of the Kenyan society at large; and v) the strong correlation between “ethnicity” and the crisis of state power in Kenya, and the pervasiveness of the ideological construct, are partly the result of the machinations of global capitalists and western interference in the country’s affairs. For its theoretical framework, this study adopts an eclectic approach: it fuses various propositions – obtained from a review of contemporary literature – on leadership iii http://etd.uwc.ac.za and socio-economic development, within the African context, with special reference to the Foucauldian notion of “panopticon”1 power, Istvan Mészáros’ refutation of “ideological neutrality” and the Instrumentalist Theory of “Ethnicity”. Accordingly, this study employs a mixed methods research design, which makes use of multiple sources of evidence, including the Kenyan Government’s Budget Speeches, Economic Surveys, and Statistical Abstracts. The results of a representative survey and focus groups have also been integrated within this study to explain the influence of ethnic-driven governance at the grassroots level in Kenya. The findings include, amongst others, that there appear to be strong links between state control and access to education, healthcare and rural water supply at particular periods in the country’s independence era, to the detriment of the Luo. Also, it appears that there is a power struggle between certain factions of capital – the so-called “globalists” and the African nationalist bourgeois class in Kenya (the nationalists). 1 Panopticon power, according to Foucault, “is power that is invisible or hidden; it functions to dominate and mould people in order to make them more serviceable for the state. It orders and arranges every part of their life, so that they become convinced that state power is everywhere and inescapable” (See Schirato, Danaher & Webb, 2012, pp. 86 – 87). iv http://etd.uwc.ac.za DECLARATION I declare that Ethnicity, Governance and Socio-economic Development in Africa: A Case Study of Kenya and its Luo Community, 1963 – 2013 is my own work, that it has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged as complete references. Albert Gordon Otieno Omulo …………………………………….. (PhD Student) Senior Prof. John J. Williams (Supervisor) v http://etd.uwc.ac.za vi http://etd.uwc.ac.za DEDICATION To my beloved mom, the late Mary Dinah Awuor Omulo, who selflessly sold her house to fund my PhD studies; sadly, she would die on the very day that the University of Western Cape’s Senate Higher Degrees Committee approved the examination reports for this thesis and made the decision to award the degree on 1 March 2018. Thank you, mom, for giving your life so I could live mine. You deserved better. To the memory of my beloved grandparents, the late Mzee James Omulo Ogutu, and the late Truphena Olang’ Omulo, whose faith in the possibility of the acquisition of higher education, by their progeny, marked the first leg of the relay race that culminated in this thesis. The latter would, unfortunately, breathe her last just before this thesis was submitted for examination. vii http://etd.uwc.ac.za ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am profoundly grateful and eternally indebted to the Almighty God who, in child’s play fashion, turns predicaments into opportunities for breakthroughs. The story behind the pursuit of this qualification, including the identification of the research topic, the inspiration behind it, connection to a suitable guide, the acquisition of the requisite funding, and the resultant research outputs, is rife with significant dialectics, untold uncertainties and divine interventions. Moreover, the health, strength, perseverance and ideas that facilitated the writing of this thesis all came from the Almighty upon whom, with all humility, I pledge reverence. The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation (NRF) towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the NRF. My sincere gratitude goes to the Distinguished Professor, John James Williams, who was more than a supervisor; an inspirational father-cum-brother figure, “Jay-Jay” was genuinely concerned with my spiritual, financial, psychological and physical well-being and taught me to believe in myself. He also encouraged me to develop an Afro-optimist perspective, and to write and “fight” for Africa – the cradle of humankind. He continues to epitomize, to me and many of my colleagues at different academic levels, all over the continent of Africa, the true meaning of humility and service to humanity. I am extremely thankful to Professor Gary Kline, of Georgia Southwestern State University, who not only encouraged me during the difficult moments associated with the writing of this thesis, but also reviewed my work and provided invaluable comments. Gary would also take time off his busy schedule as the Editor of the Journal of Global South Studies, to edit my work pro bono. An excellent role model, Gary has taught me that true achievement lies in humility and that knowledge and wisdom devoid of compassion are futile. I am indebted to Emmanuel Ameh, who assisted with the construction of the graphical illustrations in this thesis and its formatting. My gratitude also goes to Prof. Lorna Holtman of the University of the Western Cape’s Division for Postgraduate Studies and to the members of the non-academic staff, School of Government, University of the Western Cape, who encouraged and prayed for me. viii http://etd.uwc.ac.za I also want to thank Emelda, my beloved wife, for her perseverance. The entire duration of my scholarship coincided with the most challenging period of our lives as a couple. She has made an immense contribution towards the completion of this thesis, particularly by solely shouldering the difficult task and responsibility of raising Trevor, our son, whilst I was away studying. I wish to sincerely acknowledge the efforts of my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Barack Omulo, for their prayers, encouragement, and material and psychological support whilst I was undertaking this study. This thesis lived in them before it was made manifest through me; it was theirs before it became mine. In the relay race that is life, they ran their leg well and put me in a good position to anchor “Team Omulo” home. I also wish to thank my brothers and sisters, Tom, Lilian, Violet, and Ezekiel, for their encouragement and prayers. I am indebted to my research assistants, particularly