Arsen’ev’s Lament A Century of Change to Wildlife and Wild Places in Primorye, Russia JONATHAN C. SLAGHT Abstract: In 1900, Vladimir Arsen’ev arrived in a remote corner of the Russian Empire on the cusp of significant change. Forests in the Ussuri Kray (now Primorskiy Kray, or Primorye) were wild, wild- life was abundant, and the human population was low. Twenty-one years later, after witnessing a sustained influx of settlers and a re- duction of wildlife, in his introduction to Across the Ussuri Kray [Po Ussuriiskomy kraiu], a travelogue about his experiences in the region, Arsen’ev mourned the passing of this unique time and place. This article outlines Arsen’ev’s contributions to our understanding of Pri- morye’s wildlife in the early twentieth century, describes what led to the reductions in wildlife he witnessed and offers a summary of how wildlife and wilderness look in the region today. Keywords: Amur leopard, Amur tiger, conservation, hunting, natu- ral resource use, Russian Far East hen Vladimir Arsen’ev first arrived in the Russian province of Primorye in 1900, known then as part of the Ussuri Kray, he Wwas smitten by the mosaic of wilderness and culture he found there. This was a land of tigers and bears, Chinese and Udege, forest and mountain, all swirled together in one remarkable pocket of northeast Asia. Arsen’ev was tasked with inventorying local resources in the first decade of the twentieth century, providing much-needed updates to catalogs of infrastructure and population, and he did so by conducting a series of long-distance expeditions with a focus on the Sikhote-Alin Mountains and the Sea of Japan coast. He later published memoirs de- scribing his early days in the kray, with his 1906 and 1907 expeditions detailed in Across the Ussuri Kray [Po Ussuriiskomy kraiu; 1921] and Dersu Uzala (1923). A half-century later, in 1976, these trips were immortalized by Akira Kurosawa’s Academy Award-winning film “Dersu Uzala.”1 Sibirica Vol. 19, No. 3, Winter 2020: 79–89 © The Author(s) doi: 10.3167/sib.2020.190206 ISSN 1361-7362 (Print) • ISSN 1476-6787 (Online) Jonathan C. Slaght Arsen’ev was far from the first Russian to explore this region then write about it—people such as Nikolai Przhevalskii (in 1867–1869) and Mikhail Venyukov (in 1868) quickly come to mind—but I consider Arsen’ev to be Primorye’s first eloquent champion.2 His love for the Ussuri Kray, its people, and its wildlife flowed unabashedly from his pen, and his passion was infectious. Many Russian naturalists, both professional and amateur, credit Arsen’ev as an early source of their fascination with nature. Better than most, Arsen’ev had a deep understanding of the region’s wildlife and culture. Then, the kray was dotted by sparse collections of Chinese hunter cabins, Korean farming communities, indigenous Udege encampments, and Russian villages. Arsen’ev wove among them, spending time in the settlements he encountered, not just passing through, and interviewed village residents to learn about their expe- riences and histories. The level of detail in his works would suggest an educational background seeped in the sciences: geology, ethnog- raphy, ornithology, botany, perhaps even archeology. It is surprising that Arsen’ev had no scientific training beyond what he had received at a military academy in St. Petersburg, which he attended from 1892 to 1895.3,4 However, the skills he honed as an expedition organizer were well suited for scientific observation: he knew the importance of properly collecting and storing samples, keeping a structured journal and, perhaps most critically, how to efficiently synthesize raw data into coherent reports. Some of Arsen’ev’s records were so exhaustive that we can parse out everything from which villagers owned rifles (including the serial numbers of these weapons and their year of manufacture) to which Ko- reans were distilling moonshine, and which crops were being planted where.5 He also took careful note of indigenous dress and custom and transcribed Chinese forest law.6 Wildlife in Arsen’ev’s Primorye Arsen’ev’s notes on the wildlife he encountered were equally detailed. He wrote about the predator-avoiding behavior of long-tailed goral— shaggy, goat-like cliff dwellers—and detailed the dietary preferences of Asiatic black bears.7 Sometimes his theories on behavior were wrong, such as when he suggested that Amur (or Siberian) tigers mimic red deer calls to lure them to their deaths, but more often than not his accounts were accurate.8 Some of his observations have historical im- 80 Sibirica Arsen’ev’s Lament portance: his description of a congregation of Steller’s sea lions (called a “haulout”), for example, is one of only two historical records in Pri- morye, and there had not been a haulout seen there again until 1997.9 Although the Ussuri Kray was a wild place at the turn of the twentieth century, the region was not devoid of human presence. Ap- proximately 700,000 people populated the Ussuri Kray then, mostly concentrated in Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Nikolsk-Ussuriysky (now Ussuriysk), and Nikolaevsk. By ethnicity, populations were fairly evenly split between Russians (300,000) and Chinese (345,000), with Koreans (55,000) and especially indigenous Nanai and Udege (2,000) in the minority. However, along the coast and in the northern regions of the Sikhote-Alin mountains where Arsen’ev explored, Russians were in the distinct minority: most of the population was Chinese (with only 685 Russians, 9 percent of the overall population north of St. Olga Post, now Olga).10 The early twentieth century was a period of considerable wildlife exploitation in Primorye. The Chinese hunting system was highly organized, with an efficient transportation network that linked hunt- ers, trappers, and their wares to collection hubs in most major river drainages, where products were collected and sent on to Vladivostok or Khabarovsk for eventual export to Chinese markets. Arsen’ev documented near-hyperbolic levels of hunting, with fences up to fifty kilometers long leading wildlife indiscriminately to snares or pits, storehouses full of animal parts ready for export to China, and estimated 1.2 million sable traps in the forests. Everywhere he went, Arsen’ev described how animals were hunted or harvested, from octopi and other mollusks to musk deer, goral, and bears. Arsen’ev viewed the Chinese hunters as a threat to Primorye’s natural resources. His notes sometimes allowed the scale of these threats to be quantified: for example, in a 107-day period spanning 1912 and 1913, a single collection hub along the Iman River received 637 musk deer glands, and skins from 1,783 weasels, 241 sables, 10 lynx, 21 bears, and 5 tigers.11 Although Arsen’ev regularly blamed the Chinese population for their exploitation of Primorye’s animals and worried that if left unabated the forests would soon be devoid of wildlife, the Russians set- tlers also had their hand in this decline. For example, Yuri Yankovskii, sometimes called “Asia’s greatest tiger hunter,” lived near Vladivostok until the fall of the Russian Empire and socialized with Arsen’ev. Yan- kovskii is said to have killed hundreds of Amur tigers in his lifetime.12 Photographs over the years show Yuri, his sons, and his hunting com- panions posing next to veritable piles of animal carcasses including Winter 2020 81 Jonathan C. Slaght tigers, leopards, bears, wild boar, leopard cats, foxes, raccoon dogs, and more.13 At age forty-eight, in exile in what is now North Korea, Yan- kovskii wrote that he still hunted “a little,” taking only thirty to forty animals a year, mostly roe deer and wild boar.14 Arsen’ev largely viewed the Russian settlers as lazy and un- organized, not as threats to wildlife, and when he described Russian hunting these episodes were framed more as acts of heroism or feats of strength.15 For example, Arsen’ev met a villager in Fudin named Kashlev, revered for how many tigers he had slain, and also extolled the Pyatyshkin and Myakishev Brothers, who had collectively killed hundreds of bears.16 Arsen’ev played his part in wildlife take as well, although not on nearly as vast a scale. In addition to hunting deer and boar as food during expeditions, he and his team shot mammals and birds to preserve as museum specimens, with sixty birds being col- lected during the 1906 expedition alone.17 They also hunted for sport: on one occasion, Arsen’ev sought out and shot a bear for no reason other than to prove his meddle as a hunter; on another occasion, one of his companions killed an Amur leopard. Arsen’ev would have shot a tiger as well, or at least tried to, had Dersu Uzala not dissuaded him of the idea.18 The pressures put on wildlife in Arsen’ev’s day were not sustain- able, and the actions of Yankovskii and other tiger hunters nearly saw these big cats driven to extinction. At the time of Arsen’ev’s early twentieth- century expeditions dozens of Amur tigers were being re- moved from the forests annually.19 Dr. Dale Miquelle, a leading Amur tiger conservationist in Primorye today, contends that there were about 850 adult Amur tigers in the wild in Russia around that time, based on the historic geographical range of tigers and their known territory size. Some of these animals, mostly adults, were targeted by Russian trophy hunters, while others, primarily younger animals, were captured alive for domestic and international zoo and circus markets.20 In the mid- to late-1930s, when the federal zapovednik (nature reserve) system expanded to include lands in Primorye, interest in tigers evolved to include study and protection as well as hunting.