THE EMERGENCE OF THE LABORATORY METHOD & THE DISPLACEMENT OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY BY PHYSICS IN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS (1860-1900). A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAIʻI AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION MAY 2018 By Markus G. Speidel Dissertation Committee: David Ericson, Chairperson Erin “Kahunawai” Wright Hannah Tavares Xu Di Thomas Apple Keywords: History, Science, Education, America, NGSS, Textbooks, Teachers ABSTRACT Advocating for the laboratory method was a distinguishing feature of textbooks as physics displaced natural philosophy in American schools during the second half of the nineteenth century as the dominant tradition of teaching physical science. This dissertation examines digital editions of textbooks in common use during the period to tell the narrative of this emergence and transformation. I contend that the transformation from the tradition of natural philosophy to that of physics succeeded less because of the agency of individual actors, but because schools were responding to the perceived needs and changing realities of their societies. Understanding the how this transformation occurred, however, requires examining the contributions made by individual actors. Teachers frequently look to textbooks for guidance, even if they do not follow them entirely. This dissertation examines the changing series of textbooks published during the period from the middle of the 19th century to its end, and compares the instructions given to teachers in the introductory sections to trace the evolution of physical science instruction over time. The significance of this dissertation lies in its contribution to our evolving understanding of science education and what leads to educational change. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. II TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................... III LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. VII CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION -- SETTING THE STAGE ................................................ 1 Scope of Study ....................................................................................................................... 7 Initial Conception................................................................................................................ 8 Evolving Research Questions .............................................................................................. 9 The Laboratory Method .................................................................................................... 13 The History of Science Education ..................................................................................... 14 Current Ideals of Science Learning.................................................................................... 15 The Scientific Revolution .................................................................................................. 17 Section Summary .............................................................................................................. 21 Secondary Science Education in America at the End of the 19th Century........................ 21 General Discussion ........................................................................................................... 22 Structure and Logistics ...................................................................................................... 23 Purpose of Education ........................................................................................................ 27 Pedagogy .......................................................................................................................... 30 Laboratories ...................................................................................................................... 32 Section Summary .............................................................................................................. 35 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 35 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW -- PERSPECTIVES ............................................. 36 History, Science and the History of Science Education ..................................................... 37 The Relevance of the History of Education ....................................................................... 37 Why Science Education Matters ........................................................................................ 39 iii The Future Is A Consequence of The Past ......................................................................... 40 Current Directions in the History of Science Education: .................................................... 41 Section Summary .............................................................................................................. 47 A Comparison of Two Educational Systems ...................................................................... 47 How the conception of life and civilization impacts education ........................................... 48 Plato’s Republic ................................................................................................................ 50 Eliot’s America ................................................................................................................. 57 Lessons to be learned ........................................................................................................ 67 Section Summary .............................................................................................................. 68 Growth & Technology: America’s population, cities, schools and inventions ................. 69 Changing Demographics ................................................................................................... 69 Technological Progress ..................................................................................................... 71 Rise of science as form of authority .................................................................................. 73 The Rise of High Schools .................................................................................................. 75 The Need to Reorganize .................................................................................................... 79 Section Summary .............................................................................................................. 81 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 82 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY – APPROACHES ........................................................... 83 Positionality......................................................................................................................... 83 Philosophy of Education ..................................................................................................... 86 Schooling as A Social Good .............................................................................................. 88 Core American Values ...................................................................................................... 91 Social Control in Colonial America ................................................................................... 93 Social cohesion in the New Republic ................................................................................ 94 The American High School ............................................................................................... 96 Confusion in the 20th Century ........................................................................................... 98 Section Summary ............................................................................................................ 100 Methodology: How Do I Build A History? ...................................................................... 101 The Work of a Historian .................................................................................................. 102 iv Epistemology, Interpretation & Historical Truth .............................................................. 104 The Nature of Reforms .................................................................................................... 106 Textbooks as historical sources ....................................................................................... 109 Section Summary ............................................................................................................ 110 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................ 111 CHAPTER 4. FINDINGS -- NATURAL PHILOSOPHY & PHYSICS ............................. 113 The Tradition of Natural Philosophy (1833-1879) ........................................................... 114 “Condensed and Intelligible” (Olmsted, 1833) ................................................................ 116 “But Little Originality” (Parker 1844) ............................................................................. 117 “With or without apparatus” Quackenbos (1860)............................................................. 118 “A selection of facts”