A Sociolinguistic Study in am, Northern Jordan Noora Abu Ain A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Language and Linguistics University of Essex June 2016 2 To my beloved Ibrahim for his love, patience and continuous support 3 Abstract T features in S J T (U) T J : zubde „ ‟ dʒubne „ ‟. On the other hand, the central and southern Jordanian dialects have [i] in similar environments; thus, zibde and dʒibne T (L) T the dark varian t [l] I , : x „ ‟ g „ ‟, other dialects realise it as [l], and thus: x l and g l. These variables are studied in relation to three social factors (age, gender and amount of contact) and three linguistic factors (position in syllable, preceding and following environments). The sample consists of 60 speakers (30 males and 30 females) from three age groups (young, middle and old). The data were collected through sociolinguistic interviews, and analysed within the framework of the Variationist Paradigm using Rbrul statistical package. The results show considerable variation and change in progress in the use of both variables, constrained by linguistic and social factors. , T lowed by a back vowel. For both variables, the young female speakers were found to lead the change towards the non-local variants [i] and [l]. The interpretations of the findings focus on changes that the local community have experienced 4 as a result of urbanisation and increased access to the target features through contact with outside communities. Keywords: Jordan, , variable (U), variable (L), Rbrul, variation and change 5 Table of Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................ 5 Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... 9 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................. 10 List of Maps ............................................................................................................................... 12 List of Phonetic Symbols ............................................................................................................ 13 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 15 Chapter One .............................................................................................................................. 20 1 Jordan: History, geography and demography ...................................................................... 20 1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 20 1.1 The History of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ...................................................................... 20 1.1.1 Pre Transjordan ................................................................................................................... 21 1.1.2 The Formation of Transjordan ............................................................................................ 27 1.1.3 The Geography of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan ........................................................ 32 1.2 Religions and Languages in Jordan .............................................................................................. 34 1.3 Administrative Divisions .............................................................................................................. 37 1.4 Demography and Population ...................................................................................................... 40 1.4.1 Population ........................................................................................................................... 41 1.4.2 Social Structure ................................................................................................................... 42 1.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................................... 44 Chapter Two .............................................................................................................................. 45 2 .................................................................... 45 2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 45 2.1 Linguistic Description of Saḥam Dialect ...................................................................................... 45 2.1.1 Phonology ............................................................................................................................ 45 2.1.1.1 Consonants ...................................................................................................................... 45 6 2.1.1.2 Vowels ............................................................................................................................. 48 2.1.1.3 Syllable Structure ............................................................................................................ 49 2.1.2 Morphology ......................................................................................................................... 49 2.1.2.1 Pronouns ......................................................................................................................... 49 2.1.2.1.1 Possessive/object Suffixes ........................................................................................ 49 2.1.2.1.2 Indirect Object Suffixes ............................................................................................. 50 2.1.2.1.3 Demonstratives ......................................................................................................... 51 2.1.2.1.4 Presentatives ............................................................................................................. 51 2.1.2.1.5 Interrogatives ............................................................................................................ 51 2.1.2.2 Adverbs............................................................................................................................ 52 2.1.2.3 Particles ........................................................................................................................... 52 2.1.2.3.1 Article ........................................................................................................................ 52 2.1.2.3.2 Genitive Marker ........................................................................................................ 53 2.1.2.3.3 Negation .................................................................................................................... 53 2.1.2.3.4 Prepositions............................................................................................................... 54 2.1.2.3.5 Conjunctions ............................................................................................................. 55 2.1.2.4 Nominal Morphology ...................................................................................................... 56 2.1.2.4.1 Gender ....................................................................................................................... 56 2.1.2.4.2 Productive Patterns ................................................................................................... 56 2.1.2.5 Numerals ......................................................................................................................... 56 2.1.2.6 Strong Verbs .................................................................................................................... 57 2.1.2.6.1 Forms......................................................................................................................... 58 2.1.2.6.2 Inflections .................................................................................................................. 58 2.1.2.7 Weak Verbs ..................................................................................................................... 60 2.1.2.7.1 Geminated Verbs ...................................................................................................... 60 2.1.2.7.2 Verbs Iʔ ...................................................................................................................... 60 2.1.2.7.3 Verbs Iw ..................................................................................................................... 61 2.1.2.7.4 Verbs IIw/y ................................................................................................................ 61 2.1.2.7.5 Verbs IIIy .................................................................................................................... 62 2.1.3 Syntax .................................................................................................................................. 62 2.1.3.1 Noun Phrases .................................................................................................................. 62 2.1.3.2 Verb Phrases .................................................................................................................... 63 2.1.3.2.1 Tense