Two “Official” Languages of Work: Explaining the Persistence of Inequitable Access to French as a Language of Work in the Canadian Federal Public Service Helaina Gaspard Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Post-Doctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctoral degree in Political Studies School of Political Studies Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa © Helaina Gaspard, Ottawa, Canada, 2014 Table of Contents Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................... ii Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................ vi Chapter 1: Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1 Project Plan .......................................................................................................................................... 9 Chapter 2:Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 12 Part I: Literature Review .................................................................................................................... 13 The Politics of Language ................................................................................................................ 13 Representative Bureaucracy .......................................................................................................... 24 Part II: The Limits of Existing Theoretical Approaches .................................................................... 27 Social Learning .............................................................................................................................. 28 Organizational Approaches: Organizational Culture and Path Dependency ............................... 30 Sociological Approaches ................................................................................................................ 36 Part III: Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 41 Historical Institutionalism and Layering ........................................................................................ 41 Part IV: Research Design ................................................................................................................... 49 Part V: Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 54 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................... 60 Chapter 3: 1867-1967 ........................................................................................................................... 62 Hang your language with your hat upon entering Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 62 The Dominance of Dualism: The Pre-Confederation Civil Service (1840-1867) .............................. 63 Confederation and the Introduction of Merit and Efficiency (1868-1918) ........................................ 67 Unilingualism, Synonymous with Efficiency (1919-1945) ............................................................... 72 Breaking Point (1946-1966) ............................................................................................................... 84 Conclusion: Foundations Laid ........................................................................................................... 97 Chapter 4: 1968-1972 ......................................................................................................................... 100 No time to ‘cool it fellows’ Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 100 Adopting the OLA 1969 ................................................................................................................... 101 Implementing the OLA .................................................................................................................... 114 French-Language Units (FLUs) ................................................................................................... 116 ii Bilingual Districts ........................................................................................................................ 122 Linguistic Designation of Positions ............................................................................................. 126 A lot of effort, but limited results ..................................................................................................... 129 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................ 131 Chapter 5: 1973-1981 ......................................................................................................................... 134 If at first you don’t succeed, layer, layer and then layer again Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 134 1973 Parliamentary Resolution on Official Languages ................................................................... 136 The 1977 Decentralization of the Management of the Official Languages Program ....................... 147 Reopening the OLA in 1977? Les Gens de l’Air crisis and National Unity ................................... 153 Reorganizing and Restructuring the Public Service in 1981 ............................................................ 158 1981 Changes to the Official Languages Program ........................................................................... 161 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................ 163 Chapter 6: 1982-2013 ......................................................................................................................... 166 The OLA 1988 and Part V: The right to choose your language of work official...but only on paper Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 166 The Charter and the end of the Liberal Reign .................................................................................. 167 Enter Mulroney and the Progressive Conservatives ......................................................................... 172 The Content of the OLA 1988.......................................................................................................... 176 Part V: Official Language of Work .............................................................................................. 177 Implementing Part V ........................................................................................................................ 180 Giving Meaning to Part V ................................................................................................................ 187 Conclusion........................................................................................................................................ 200 Chapter 7: Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 202 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 202 Areas of Analysis ............................................................................................................................. 202 Ideas ............................................................................................................................................. 202 Institutions .................................................................................................................................... 204 Actors ........................................................................................................................................... 207 Key Contributions ............................................................................................................................ 210 Future Research ................................................................................................................................ 213 Annexe 1: The Key Players ............................................................................................................... 215 iii Department of Secretary of State ..................................................................................................... 215 Treasury Board Secretariat ............................................................................................................... 218 Public Service Commission ............................................................................................................. 223 Office of the Commissioner of Official languages .........................................................................