A Dangerous Undertaking: Appropriation Art, Intellectual Property, and Fair Use Since the 1990s by Katherine de Vos Devine Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Kristine Stiles, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Hans J. Van Miegroet, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Richard J. Powell ___________________________ Jennifer Jenkins Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies in the Graduate School of Duke University 2017 ABSTRACT A Dangerous Undertaking: Appropriation Art, Intellectual Property, and Fair Use Since the 1990s by Katherine de Vos Devine Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Kristine Stiles, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Hans J. Van Miegroet, Co-Supervisor ___________________________ Richard J. Powell ___________________________ Jennifer Jenkins An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Art, Art History & Visual Studies in the Graduate School of Duke University 2017 Copyright by Katherine de Vos Devine 2017 Abstract This dissertation is a historical examination of the broad and multifaceted role of appropriation in twentieth and twenty-first century American art. It argues for the complementarity of research in legal and art theory with respect to the origins, significance, and future of appropriation and contends that the historical development of appropriation art is indissolubly interconnected with changes in intellectual property laws. This dissertation proposes that a history of contemporary appropriation requires an interdisciplinary approach, employing art historical, legal, and economic theory to examine interrelations between appropriation art, art critical theory, and the legal doctrine of fair use. Special attention is paid to the development of terms used to describe and define appropriation art. The art historical definition of appropriation is traced through a review of academic criticism and museum exhibitions. The legal understanding of appropriation, which has a direct impact on the creation and dissemination of art that builds on prior works, is explored and clarified. Economic claims about artistic property rights and art markets are also considered and differentiated. Throughout, I question established understandings of appropriation and identify unresolved issues in the scholarly treatment of appropriation art. I draw iv distinctions between ethical and legal guidelines for reuse of images and suggest that further development of ethical guidelines is more important than further clarification of legal rules. Ultimately, I conclude that transformative use is a valuable framework for understanding appropriation, but judges cannot be expected to determine whether or not a work is transformative without expert guidance, preferably from artists themselves, and recommend that artists participate actively in the development of aware appropriation and ethical fair use. v Dedication For the woman in the black suit. vi Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iv List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. viii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 1. LAW: Problems of Observation ............................................................................................ 33 1.1 Fair Use ............................................................................................................................ 42 1.2 Transformative Artworks in the Courts, 1990-2016 .................................................. 60 1.3 Carrie Mae Weems, From Here I Saw What Happened and I Cried (1995) ........ 108 2. ART: Problems of Interpretation ........................................................................................ 136 2.1 Defining Appropriation ............................................................................................... 144 2.2 Authorship, Originality, and Alternatives ............................................................... 159 2.3 Richard Prince, Canal Zone (2007-2008) ................................................................... 214 3. MARKETS: Problems of Interaction ................................................................................... 238 3.1 Economic Theories of Copyright ................................................................................ 248 3.2 Creativity, Customs, and Codes ................................................................................. 279 3.3 Christian Marclay, The Clock (2010) ......................................................................... 317 Conclusion: “The Most Extraordinary Gift” ......................................................................... 328 Appendix: Illustrations ............................................................................................................ 342 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 378 Biography ................................................................................................................................... 417 vii List of Figures Figure 1: Sherrie Levine, After Walker Evans: 4, 1981, gelatin silver print, 5 1/16 x 3 7/8 inches .......................................................................................................................................... 342 Figure 2: Lauren Clay, Cloud on single-mindedness, 2012, paper, acrylic, 30 x 24 x 12 inches ...................................................................................................................................................... 343 Figure 3: David Smith, Cubi XXVII, 1965, stainless steel, 111 3/8 x 87 3/4 x 34 inches .... 344 Figure 4: Glenn Ligon, Notes on Margin of the Black Book, 1991-1993, Ninety-one offset prints, 11 1/2 x 11 1/2 inches each (framed), seventy-eight text pages, 5 1/4 x 7 1/4 inches each ............................................................................................................................................. 345 Figure 5: Glenn Ligon, Notes on Margin of the Black Book, 1991-1993, Ninety-one offset prints; 11 1/2 x 11 1/2 inches each (framed); seventy-eight text pages, 5 1/4 x 7 1/4 inches each ............................................................................................................................................. 346 Figure 6: Art Rogers, Puppies, 1985, offset lithograph on coated paper, 4 5/8 x 5 ¾ inches ...................................................................................................................................................... 347 Figure 7: Jeff Koons, String of Puppies, 1988, polychrome on wood, 62 x 37 inches ........ 348 Figure 8: Jeff Koons, Niagara, 2000, oil on canvas, 120 x 168 inches .................................. 349 Figure 9: Andrea Blanch, Silk Sandals by Gucci, 2000 ........................................................... 350 Figure 10: Shepard Fairey, Hope, 2008, screenprint, 34 3/4 x 39 1/4 inches ....................... 351 Figure 11: Carrie Mae Weems, A Scientific Profile, from From Here I Saw What Happened and I Cried, monochrome c-prints with sandblasted text on glass, 26 3/4 x 22 3/4 x 1 inches .......................................................................................................................................... 352 Figure 12: Carrie Mae Weems, A Negroid Type, from From Here I Saw What Happened and I Cried, monochrome c-prints with sandblasted text on glass, 26 3/4 x 22 3/4 x 1 inches . 353 Figure 13: Carrie Mae Weems, An Anthropological Debate, from From Here I Saw What Happened and I Cried, monochrome c-prints with sandblasted text on glass, 26 3/4 x 22 3/4 x 1 inches .................................................................................................................................... 354 viii Figure 14: Carrie Mae Weems, & a Photographic Subject, from From Here I Saw What Happened and I Cried, monochrome c-prints with sandblasted text on glass, 26 3/4 x 22 3/4 x 1 inches .................................................................................................................................... 355 Figure 15: Carrie Mae Weems, Untitled (from the Sea Islands series), 1992, Chromogenic color prints, dimensions unknown ......................................................................................... 356 Figure 16: Cover of From Site to Sight, 2017, 8 1/2 x 11 inches ............................................ 357 Figure 17: Sarah Charlesworth, April 21, 1978 from Modern History, 1978, black-and- white direct positive print, dimensions variable .................................................................. 358 Figure 18: Patrick Cariou, from Yes, Rasta, 2000 ..................................................................