eries S cience In one way or another, every landform and creature on Earth reflects the pres- ence of the oceans. Understanding the Earth’s oceans is essential to our under- O C E A N S standing of human history, the origin of life, weather and climate, medicines, the health of the environment, energy sources, and much more. Reports from POLLUTION the National Academies provide in-depth analysis and useful advice for poli- cymakers and the general public on topics ranging from exploring the ocean’s incredible biodiversity and resources to reducing threats to human safety from toxic algal blooms, contaminants, and coastal storms. This series is intended to IN THE help readers interpret information about the state of our oceans and better un- derstand the role of ocean science. OCEAN Other booklets in this series include Ocean Exploration, Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries, Coastal Hazards, and Oceans and Human Health. Highlights of National Academies Reports About the National Academies The National Academies—the National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, Institute of Medicine, and the National Research Council—provide a public service by working outside the framework of government to ensure independent advice on matters of science, technology, and medicine. They enlist committees of the nation’s top scientists, engineers, and other experts—all of whom volunteer their time to study specific concerns. The results of these deliberations are authoritative, peer-reviewed reports that have in- spired some of the nation’s most significant efforts to improve the health, education, and welfare of the population. This booklet was prepared by the National Research Council based on the following reports: Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assessing the Effectiveness (2007) Sponsored by: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks (2006) Sponsored by: Department of Commerce, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Oil Spill Dispersants: Efficacy and Effects (2005) Sponsored by: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Minerals Management Service, U.S. Coast Guard, American Petroleum Institute. Marine Mammal Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining When Noise Causes Biologically Significant Effects (2005) Sponsored by: National Oceanographic Partnership Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Naval Research, National Science Foundation, Minerals Management Service. Ocean Noise and Marine Mammals (2003) Sponsored by: National Oceanographic Partnership Program, Office of Naval Research, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Science Foundation, U.S. Geological Survey. Oil in the Sea III: Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2003) Sponsored by: Minerals Management Service, American Petroleum Institute, Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Geological Survey, Department of Energy, U.S. Coast Guard, National Ocean Industries Association, U.S. Navy, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000) Sponsored by: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution (2000) Sponsored by: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Geological Survey, Electric Power Research Institute. Contaminated Sediments in Ports and Waterways: Clean-up Strategies and Technologies (1997) Sponsored by: Maritime Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation. These and other reports are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20001; 800-624-6242; http://www.nap.edu. Reports are available online in a fully searchable format. For more information, contact the Ocean Studies Board at 202-334-2714 or visit http://dels.nas.edu/osb. Copyright 2007 by the National Academy of Sciences. POLLUTION is the RELEASE OF undesirable SUBSTANCES into the environment. Many human activities—industrial production, burn- ing of fossil fuels, agriculture, and product use, among others—generate pol- lutants that can find their way into the ocean. At one time, people thought that the vastness of the ocean could dilute pollutants enough to eliminate their impacts. It is now known, however, that some pollutants can significantly alter marine ecosystems and cause harm—sometimes deadly—to species from the top to the bottom of the food web. Pollutants often originate far inland and are transported to the ocean via rivers or through the air. Pollutants of particular concern include petroleum, excess nutrients from fertil- izers, debris, and industrial contaminants. Even noise, from such activities as shipping, seismic exploration, and sonar, can affect ocean life. The good news is that through innovative science and technology, regular monitoring, envi- ronmentally-aware policies, and established treatment methods, some of the effects of pol- lution can be contained and reduced. Many important action steps have already been taken: “scrubbers” have been installed on coal power plants to reduce air emissions of pollutants; microorganisms are being used to break down pollutants in sewage; wetlands and buffer zones have been created along rivers and streams to absorb excess fertilizers; and oil dispersants are being used to treat oil spills. Despite some successes in reversing hazardous effects of pollution, much work remains to be done to protect ocean health for future generations. OIL The 1989 oil spill from the grounding of the oil tanker The National Research Council report Oil in the Sea III: Exxon Valdez, still the largest such spill in U.S. history, Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2003) developed a new meth- is infamous for the devastation it caused to the fragile odology for estimating petroleum inputs to the sea from marine wildlife in Alaska’s Prince William Sound. The both natural and human sources (see figure at right). Oil tanker spilled approximately 11 million gallons of its 53- inputs from human activities are categorized as those million-gallon cargo of crude oil, killing an estimated that originate from: (1) petroleum extraction, explora- 900 bald eagles, 250,000 seabirds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 tion, and production activities; (2) petroleum transpor- harbor seals and uncounted fish and invertebrates. Mas- tation, including tanker spills and (3) petroleum use, sive cleanup efforts removed much of the visible crude including runoff from highways and discharges from oil within a year, but the slow release of the remaining recreational vehicles. oil has continued to affect populations of local marine plants and animals to this day. Although alternative energy sources are being pursued, oil is expected to remain the dominant fuel for at least the next couple of decades. Energy demands continue to rise as population increases and the developing world becomes more industrialized. Worldwide petroleum consumption is projected to rise sharply over the next few decades, with the largest rate of growth in China, India, and other developing Asian nations. The Steller sea lion was among many marine animals coated with oil following the 1989 spill from the oil tanker Exxon Valdez in Alaska’s Prince William Sound. (Image from the Exxon 2 OCEAN SCIENCE SERIES Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council) of Mexico. During the past decade, however, improved production technology and safety training of person- nel have dramatically reduced both blowouts and daily operational spills. Today, accidental spills from platforms represent about 1 percent of petroleum discharged in North American waters and about 3 percent worldwide. North American Marine Waters Although the amount of oil transported over the sea con- tinues to rise, transporta- 84 tion-related spills are down. Accidental spills have been dramatically reduced with the advent of double-hulls The U.S. Oil Pollution Act of on oil tankers and through new technology and safety training on oil platforms (shown above). 1990, enacted in response to the Exxon Valdez disaster, 160 9.1 Although people often associate oil in the ocean with required older vessels to be 3 tanker accidents, natural seeps are the largest single phased out. Most tankers now source of oil in the sea, accounting for about 60 percent have double-hulls or segre- of the total in North American waters and 45 percemt gated tank arrangements that worldwide. Seeps form when crude oil oozes into the dramatically reduce spillage. Worldwide Marine Waters water from geologic formations beneath the seafloor. Oil Transportation spills now ac- and gas extraction activities are often concentrated in count for less than four per- regions where seeps form. cent of the total petroleum released in North American 480 NEW TECHNOLOGIES HAVE REDUCED OIL waters and less than 13 per- 600 POLLUTION FROM SHIPS AND PLATFORMS cent worldwide. Historically, oil and gas exploration, petroleum produc- tion, and transportation-related spills have been signifi- cant sources of oil in the oceans. The second-largest ma- rine spill in the world was a 1979 “blowout” of a Mexican These pie charts show the 160 38 exploratory oil well that released about 140 million gal- relative contribution of the a lons of crude oil into the open sea in the southern Gulf verage, annual releases (1990- 1999) of oil into the marine Natural Seeps environment from natural seeps Extraction of Petroleum and from human activities associated with the extraction, Transportation of Petroleum transportation, and use of oil. Consumption of