ABSTRACT Title of Dissertation: ZONED DESIRES: PROSTITUTION, FAMILY POLITICS, AND SEXUAL IDEOLOGY IN 20TH CENTURY IRAN Fatemeh Hosseini, Doctor of Philosophy, 2014 Dissertation directed by: Professor Madeline Zilfi Department of History This dissertation explores the regulation and representation of prostitution in Iran during the twentieth century, and concerns itself with dominant sexual ideologies during this period. While Tehran’s red-light district, Shahr-i Nau, is largely absent from modern Iranian historiography, I argue for the significance of this contested urban space to the understanding of Iranian history and society. Using citizen petition letters, police records, and government memos, I highlight the gradual shift in Pahlavi policy from policies focused on the informal removal or relocation of prostitutes to one focused on systematic regulation, epidemiological surveillance, and the geographic concentration of prostitution. The dissertation also frames the social attitudes towards and the multiple meanings assigned to prostitution and examines efforts control the meaning and image of prostitution. Using women’s magazines and scientific studies, I demonstrate how female reformers considered prostitution a result of outdated modes of family practices. The discourse surrounding the links between family and prostitution, then, contributed to an elite form of women’s rights activism in Iran that perpetuated paternalistic frameworks within society. The entertainment industry also concerned itself with prostitution, and a growing number of Iranian movies began representing prostitution. Visibility and space were integral to the understanding of sexuality. For women engaged in the commercial sex industry the consequences of regulation were mixed and often contradictory. Female prostitutes lived in a perpetual state of vulnerability that stemmed from inequalities in the law and social double-standards. Despite this, they strove for their own interests in the context of unequal relations of power. In Iran under the Islamic Republic, the Pahlavi policies adopted to control and maintain sexuality and prostitution have manifested along comparable lines, highlighting cultural continuities that remain intact in the face of substantial political change. I argue that despite the momentous political and social changes that have affected Iran in the twentieth century, a study of prostitution and temporary marriage suggests that sexual attitudes remained similar. In post-Revolutionary Iran, temporary marriage was advertised as the solution to society’s sexual concerns. In both cases, deviant sexuality was accepted so long as it was separate and invisible. ZONED DESIRES: PROSTITUTION, FAMILY POLITICS, AND SEXUAL IDEOLOGY IN 20TH CENTURY IRAN By Fatemeh Hosseini Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2014 Advisory Committee: Professor Madeline Zilfi, Chair Professor Antoine Borrut Professor Ahmet Karamustafa Professor Fatemeh Keshavarz Professor Peter Wien Copyright by Fatemeh Hosseini 2014 Acknowledgments This dissertation has been made possible through the financial support and generosity of many institutions and funding opportunities. Financial support from the University of Maryland History Department, The Mable Spencer Award, The Snouffer Grant by the University of Maryland Graduate School, and the American Association of University Women’s Dissertation Award were instrumental in enabling the research for and writing of the dissertation. I would like to express my gratitude to all these institutions for their generosity. My gratitude and thanks to my advisor, professor Madeline Zilfi, and other committee members for their time, feedback, constructive criticism, and support. I owe a large debt of gratitude to Madeline Zilfi, who gave her time and support to help me refine and complete this dissertation. Her vast expertise and thought-provoking questions guided me through the long process of writing. She also helped improve the manuscript in many other ways. Professor Peter Wien’s encouragement in the early years of my graduate study was fundamental in helping me begin to imagine the possibility of a dissertation studying prostitution in modern Iran, and his advice over the years has been much appreciated. During my research in Syria, Professor Antoine Borrut went above and beyond expectations by contacting individuals at the Institut Français du Proche-Orient in Damascus in the summer of 2011 after the Institute had ii closed due to the clashes between Syrians and the French embassy. This enabled me to complete the last stretch of my research despite the unforeseen closing of the Institute. I would also like to thank Professor Ahmet Karamustafa for his insightful feedback and suggestions which have served to improve this dissertation and Professor Fatemeh Keshavarz for lending her time and knowledge to the dissertation. My thanks must also be extended to the archivists and librarians who made the material for this dissertation available. My special thanks go to Hirad Dinavari, the Iranian World specialist at the Library of Congress’ African and Middle Eastern Division, and the two female archivists at the Iranian National Archives who expedited my requests for material and provided me with what I needed in a timely manner. I owe much to my family for their encouragement and assistance over the years. My mother-in-law, Pakdokht, spent countless hours caring for our daughter while I completed my coursework and was always a phone call away when I needed childcare. My mother’s dedication to learning and her selfless giving have always been a driving force and source of inspiration. My sister, Zainab, was integral to this dissertation by providing emotional support and childcare over the years despite her very young age. She continues to amaze me every day and no words could ever capture my gratitude for all that she has done and continues to do for our daughter. I must also thank my sister, Mahdieh, who made herself available despite her very busy schedule in the final iii stages of this dissertation and who strove to keep me young and continuously reminded me to have fun and enjoy life. Last but most important, I must thank my husband, Amin. We began a journey together many years ago that has taken us around the world and resulted in countless adventures. He has pushed me forward when I was ready to quit and listened to my frustrated rants as I navigated emotionally difficult sources for this dissertation. His computer skills were invaluable in retrieving my documents and writings when my computer crashed and his technical support and expertise have provided tremendous relief. He obtained archival material and necessary documents when they were beyond my reach and has spent countless hours photocopying and printing my sources so I could spend more time with our daughters. Most important of all, he spent numerous hours roaming the neighborhoods of Washington, D.C., and the National Zoo with our two daughters so I could write in the comfort of our home. Our daughter, Maryam, has been with us every step of the road during graduate school and is the epitome of resilience. She travelled to Tehran, Qum, and Damascus with me for research and sat patiently at various archives and libraries as I did research. She quickly adapted to new environments, political situations, languages, and people despite the physical and emotional toll it took on her young life. Amin and our children remind me, every day, of what is important in life. iv Table of Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 PART I. Urban Politics and Administering Prostitution .................................................................. 23 Chapter 1: The Politics of Regulation: Grassroots Protest, Controlled Space, and the Anti-Vice Campaign in Tehran, 1946-1959 .................................................................................................... 24 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 24 Grassroots Protest and Prostitution .......................................................................................... 28 Police Corruption, Politics, and the Urban Geography of Vice .................................................. 35 Drugs, Sex, Gambling, and the Law ............................................................................................ 45 The Permanent Commission for the Fight against Vice ............................................................. 51 Prostitution, Organized Crime, and Corruption ......................................................................... 58 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 64 Chapter 2: Undesired Visibility: Social Geography of Prostitution across Iran .............................. 71 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 71 Petitioning for the Relocation of Prostitutes ............................................................................. 72 Official Responses to Prostitution .............................................................................................