UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date:___________________ I, _________________________________________________________, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in: It is entitled: This work and its defense approved by: Chair: _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ Njegoš’s Montenegro, the Great Powers, and Modernization in the Balkans: 1830-1851 A dissertation submitted to the Division of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Cincinnati In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History, College of Arts and Sciences June 2004 By Natasha Margulis B.A. Miami University, 1994 M.A. University of Cincinnati, 1997 Committee Chair: Dr. Thomas L. Sakmyster Abstract “Njegoš's Montenegro, the Great Powers, and Modernization in the Balkans: 1830-1851” I analyze the role of Petar II Petrović Njegoš as Montenegro's vladika (the hereditary bishop-prince and ruler), as a European statesman, and as a modernizer in the nineteenth century. Although Njegoš is most known for his poetry, the most famous of which is Gorksi Vijenac (The Mountain Wreath), I examine more than his literary works by evaluating his political, social, and economic accomplishments and failures as the traditional ruler of Montenegro, a nationalist, and a diplomat. I scrutinize the successes and failures of Njegoš’s politics in two environments – that of nineteenth century Montenegro and of the European power struggle in the Balkans. Njegoš believed that in order to accomplish stability in his country, he had to establish Montenegro as a political presence in the European state-system, as well as modernize certain aspects of Montenegro’s internal political, economic, and social structures. In his foreign policy, Njegoš diplomatically maneuvered between the Russian, Austrian, and Ottoman Empires. Njegoš’s attempts to transform Montenegro from a tribal state into something that would resemble a European “nation-state” met with a mixed response from his fellow Montenegrins, although his reforms were generally approved and sometimes funded by the European Great Powers. Yearly Russian monetary assistance to Montenegro made Njegoš's internal restructuring possible. His reforms, including the opening of the first elementary school, the formation of a Senate, the creation of his uncle Petar I as a saint, and the establishment of a national treasury and system of taxation, were met with some approval and more noticeable resistance from Montenegro's tribes. Yet he paved the way for the next two generations of Montenegrin rulers to become princes and kings, enabling them to better participate in the increasingly secular world of nineteenth and twentieth century Europe. His life story, especially in regards to his time as vladika of Montenegro, provides important insight into the process of state-building in the Balkans in the nineteenth century, as well as a striking example of Balkan political, economic, and cultural interactions with Western and Central Europe. Acknowledgements I was able to try out some of the arguments from my dissertation at The Graduate Student Workshop at The Kokkalis Program on Southeastern and East-Central European Europe and the Junior Scholars’ Workshop at the Woodrow Wilson Center. John Lampe provided me with illumination, while Larry Wolff offered me inspiration. I am especially grateful for the email correspondence from Christopher Boehm and Michael Palairet in regards to their research on the Balkans. I would like to thank the Montenegrin Trade Mission for arranging my first stay in Podgorica. I am extremely grateful to all of the staff members at the University of Illinois-Urbana Slavic Library; the National Museum Archives, the National Library, and the Njegoš Museum in Cetinje; and the Historical Archives in Kotor. The Charles Phelps Taft Memorial Fund, the von Rosenstiel Fund, the Graduate Student Association Fund, and the History Department at the University of Cincinnati provided the money for research and conference trips. Interlibrary Loan at Langsam Library (University of Cincinnati) went out of their way to find all of the books I needed. Bogdan Rakić gave me the skills I needed in Serbian/Croatian to conduct my research, and the Azbukum Language Center in Novi Sad enhanced these skills. Research for this dissertation was supported in part by a grant from the International Research and Exchange Board (IREX) with funds provided by the National Endowment for the Humanities, the United States Department of State, which administers for the Title VIII Program, and the IREX Scholar Support Fund. None of these organizations are responsible for the views expressed. I would especially like to thank Maura O’Connor and Joseph Foster for their continued support and encouragement during my doctoral candidacy, and Maria Bucur who took time out of her busy schedule to serve as a reader for my committee. I do not think I would have been able to accomplish all that I have without my advisor, Thomas Sakmyster, who always pointed me in the right direction, provided me with sound advice, and encouraged my research of this very challenging field of history. I want to thank my family for their patience and encouragement; my husband’s family for their continued support and understanding; and most importantly, my husband Bill’s proofreading and unshakeable belief that I could write this dissertation. TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE........................................................................................................................II_ TERMS AND PRONUNCIATION............................................................................. XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .....................................................................................XIII CHAPTER 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO MONTENEGRO ....................................... 1 CHAPTER 2: NJEGOŠ'S FIRST YEARS AS RULER (1830-1833)......................... 30 CHAPTER 3: NJEGOŠ’S REFORMS AND THE RUSSIANS (1834-1836) ............ 55 CHAPTER 4: NJEGOŠ’S AND MONTENEGRO’S IMAGE (1837-1839) .............. 79 CHAPTER 5: NJEGOŠ VS. THE HABSBURGS & OTTOMANS (1839-1846)...... 98 CHAPTER 6: NJEGOŠ WINS BACK HIS MONTENEGRINS (1847-1851) ........ 119 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 144 GLOSSARY................................................................................................................... 149 BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................... 150 Preface: In an antique store in the old city (Stari Grad) of Kotor, Montenegro, I asked the salesclerks if they had anything related to “Njegoš.” The male sales associate was quick to point out the medals and guns of King Nikola (Nikola Petrović Njegoš, 1861-1921<), while the female associate showed me a collection of icons of St. Petar of Cetinje (Petar I Petrović Njegoš, 1781-1830<).1 But I was more interested in a postcard on the table, which was printed on the fiftieth anniversary of Petar II Petrović Njegoš’s death (1851</1901). “Oh, you mean Vladika Rade,” both of the Montenegrin clerks said simultaneously. To the Montenegrins, he is their beloved “Rade” – the name with which he was christened; he was one of their great rulers, almost a prince, and one of the founders of the modern republic of Montenegro. But to another South Slav or academic scholar, he is “Njegoš” – the name with which he signed his famous poems. And Njegoš is how he is known by the outside world, if he is known at all, through his contributions to South Slavic literature, especially the epic poem The Mountain Wreath (Gorski Vijenac). The Montenegrins, who remained largely illiterate until World War I, do not remember him first as a poet, as evidenced by my experience in the antique shop. He was someone much more complex; Vladika Rade of the Montenegrins has been shrouded by legends and misinformation. Petar II Petrović Njegoš (☼1813-1851<) has been called “the greatest poet in Serbian literature,” “the Serbian Milton,” and even “the Serbian Shakespeare.” His most famous poem, The Mountain Wreath, has been referred to as the magnum opus of South 1 All dates given alone in parentheses, such as (1862-1921) indicate the length of rule or service. The symbol < indicates year of death (1862-1921<) and ☼ indicates year of birth (☼1813- 1851<). ii Slavic literature.2 His poetry has been compared with that of the world’s greatest poets, including Homer, Pushkin, and Dante, although his name is unknown to many scholars. He is recognized primarily by his last name, Njegoš, and it seems that those who refer to him in this way have a tendency to recognize his poetic accomplishments but neglect the other roles he played in life: a ruler (both secular and religious) of Montenegro, a state builder and modernizer, as well as a European statesman. Although he would later change his name to Petar when consecrated as bishop, his people called him Rade in order to not confuse him with his uncle, Vladika Petar, who had ruled Montenegro for over fifty years. Njegoš succeeded his uncle in 1830 as the ruler of Montenegro for twenty-one years until he died of tuberculosis in 1851. During his short lifetime, he was able to build on the foundation created by his uncle and accomplish many things for Montenegro. He paved the way for the