Thomas Schwärzler ADAPT OR DIE Southern Africa’s Struggle for Survival in the Face of Cold War and Apartheid , 1975-1990 – Including Practical Teaching E xamples Diploma Thesis Submitted to the LEOPOLD-FRANZENS-UNIVERSITY OF INNSBRUCK To Obtain the Academic Degree MAGISTER DER PHILOSOPHIE Supervising Tutor: Priv.-Doz. Mag. Dr. Wolfgang Weber MA (UCL) MAS Department of Contemporary History Innsbruck, January 2016 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this diploma thesis would not have been possible without the strong support, the repeating encouragement and, above all, the countless useful tips of numerous people. Although I cannot mention everyone who contributed in any form to this thesis, I wish to thank at least a few. A special thanks belongs to my advisor, Dr. Wolfgang Weber, who supported me in an uncompli- cated and straightforward way and provided me with countless critical comments and suggestions throughout the past year. I also wish to thank my godfather Johannes Dorner, my colleague Michaela Schmid and my mother Magdalena Schwärzler for proofreading this thesis. When dealing with a topic that fascinating for nearly a year, there is a certain danger of getting lost in the entire matter. A big thankyou belongs therefore to all my “library companions” for their mind- off-taking and encouraging coffee- and lunchbreaks which often helped putting things back into per- spective. Moreover, I would like to thank my flatmates and all my friends, who continuously reminded me that life also exists outside of history books and countless hours in the library. The greatest deal, however, I owe to my family, who, through their generous support, enabled my university education in the first place and gave me the great opportunity to experience life as a student. What has been even more important was their tremendous support, motivating reassurance and staunch belief that my studies in general and this thesis in particular would eventually come to a successful end. Above all, I would like to thank my father. It has been his infectious passion for history that inspired me to pursue this most fascinating academic field. P a g e | III CONTENT S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................................ III ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................................... IX MAPS ..................................................................................................................................................... XI INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................................... XV CHAPTER I - HISTORICAL OUTLINE 1.1. The Last European Empire – Portugal in Southern Africa ........................................................... 1 1.1.1. The Beginnings of Colonialism ............................................................................................. 1 1.1.2. Estado Novo & Lusotropicalism ........................................................................................... 2 1.1.3. Portugal’s colonial wars ........................................................................................................ 4 1.1.4. The end of an empire ............................................................................................................. 9 1.2. The Emergence of a Hegemonic Power – South Africa until 1977 ........................................... 11 1.2.1. The Arrival of Great Britain ................................................................................................ 11 1.2.2. Empire vs. Republics ........................................................................................................... 12 1.2.3. Establishment of Apartheid ................................................................................................. 14 1.2.4. Economic Strive, Growing tensions and escalation ............................................................ 16 1.3. Namibia – “Southern Africa’s Last Colony” .............................................................................. 17 1.3.1. Pre-German Era ................................................................................................................... 17 1.3.2. German South-West Africa ................................................................................................. 18 1.3.3. Namibia under a League of nations Mandate ...................................................................... 19 1.3.4. South Africa’s “Fifth Province” .......................................................................................... 20 1.3.5. Hegemonic Struggle ............................................................................................................ 22 CHAPTER II - SOUTH AFRICA: THE AMBIGUOUS HEGEMON? 2.1. Defining South African Hegemony ............................................................................................ 23 2.1.1. A Threedimensional Approach ............................................................................................ 24 2.2. South Africa’s Hegemonic Strategies ........................................................................................ 27 2.2.1. Looking Outward ................................................................................................................ 27 2.2.2. Total Onslaught ................................................................................................................... 29 2.2.3. Total National Strategy........................................................................................................ 31 P a g e | V 2.3. Pretoria’s Praetorians – Applying TNS ...................................................................................... 39 2.3.1. Phase 1: Constellation of States .......................................................................................... 39 2.3.2. Phase 2: Policy of Destabilization ....................................................................................... 44 2.3.3. Phase 3: Pax Pretoriana? ..................................................................................................... 54 2.4. Taming the “Groot Krokodil” – The Superpowers and South Africa ........................................ 75 2.4.1. A Bishop, a President and the US congress ......................................................................... 75 2.4.2. Moscow and the ANC ......................................................................................................... 83 2.5. TNS – “Total National Screw-Up?” ........................................................................................... 89 CHAPTER III – MOZAMBIQUE: THE CHANCELESS COUNTRY? 3.1. Setting a Course – Strategies and Aims of Mozambique ........................................................... 91 3.1.1. New Rulers and a New System ........................................................................................... 91 3.1.2. Social Engineering and Economic Development ................................................................ 95 3.1.3. International Orientation ................................................................................................... 100 3.2. Going Astray – Developments within Mozambique ................................................................ 104 3.2.1. Phase I: From Independence to Nkomati .......................................................................... 104 3.2.2. Phase II: From Nkomati until 1989 ................................................................................... 107 3.3. Trying to Get Back on Track .................................................................................................... 110 3.3.1. Responding to RENAMO.................................................................................................. 110 3.3.2. An Undesired Alliance – Moscow and Maputo: ............................................................... 113 3.3.3. Crocker vs. Reaganites: Part II – Washington and Maputo .............................................. 114 3.4. A Lost Cause? – Mozambique in 1989 .................................................................................... 117 CHAPTER IV – ANGOLA: THE COLD WAR MICROCOSM? 4.1. From War To War – The Period of Independence ................................................................... 121 4.1.1. Broken Promises – The Treaty of Alvor ........................................................................... 121 4.1.2. Seizing Power – The MPLA Takes Over .......................................................................... 123 4.1.3. Retreat and Defeat – UNITA and FNLA........................................................................... 129 4.2. The Civil War Becomes International ...................................................................................... 134 4.2.1. Cuban Backup ................................................................................................................... 134 4.2.2. South Africa Invades ......................................................................................................... 137 4.2.3. Repercussions .................................................................................................................... 141 4.3. The Cold War Joins the Conflict .............................................................................................