Volume 7 | Issue 23 | Number 4 | Article ID 3166 | Jun 06, 2009 The Asia-Pacific Journal | Japan Focus The Beijing Olympics as a Turning Point? China’s First Olympics in East Asian Perspective Susan Brownell The Beijing Olympics as a Turning Point? shadow of wars, past, present, and future. The China’s First Olympics in East Asian political animosity surrounding Beijing 2008 Perspective was especially highlighted by contrast with the comparatively tranquil background of the four Susan Brownell preceding Olympics. The Albertville 1992 Winter Games had been the first Olympics in It is commonly stated that the 1964 and 1988 history considered to have “100% Olympics were “turning points” for theparticipation,” with no boycotts or IOC-dictated integration of Japan and South Korea,exclusions (in addition to these reasons, before respectively, into the global community. It was World War II nations often did not compete for anticipated that the Beijing Olympics would be lack of funding or indifference from the central a “turning point” for China. Now that the government). South Africa’s exclusion since Beijing Games are over, we can ask whether 1964 had ended in 1988, but the tail end of the anything “turned,” and if so, in whichCold War had extended into the Seoul Games direction? This essay deals with a central with the boycott by North Korea, Cuba, and paradox of the Olympic Games – they reinforce Ethiopia. The Barcelona 1992 Summer nationalism and internationalism at the same Olympics were marred only by the IOC’s time. A one-sided focus on nationalism, such as barring of Yugoslavia; both there and at the characterized much of the media coverage of preceding Albertville Games, the former Soviet the Beijing Olympics, can lead to the erroneous Union was represented by the Unified Team. conclusion that the Olympic Games exacerbate From the Barcelona Olympics onward the rather than moderate political conflicts. Games were considered to forward integration Wishful thinking that the Beijing Games would and reconciliation, and the political issues that be a turning point for human rights and dominated public opinion were domestic or democracy led to the conclusion by China regional (Catalonian sovereignty in Barcelona watchers in the West that the Beijing Games 1992; the rise of the American South and racial were not the turning point that was hoped for. integration in Atlanta 1996; Aboriginal rights in However, reflection on what actually “turned” Sydney 2000; Greece taking its place as a in Japan and South Korea helps us to see what respected EU member in 2004). we should actually be looking for in the case of China. This retrospective suggests that the Although after the Tibetan uprisings in March interplay between nationalism and2008 some Chinese expressed the hope that the internationalism was similar in all threeBeijing Olympics might promote ethnic Olympic Games, and offers a more optimistic reconciliation like that between Aborigines and prospect for China’s peaceful integration into Whites in Sydney 2000, a closer look would the international community. have revealed that in Australia the work of reconciliation through the Olympic Games had Most of the modern Olympic Games held begun at least as early as 1996, when the use between 1896 and 1988 took place in the of aboriginal symbols in the Sydney segment of 1 7 | 23 | 4 APJ | JF the Atlanta closing ceremony had provoked previous three Chinese National Games – protest. In Beijing, however, the use of ethnic starting in 1979 with the first post-Cultural minority symbols, including Tibetan symbols, Revolution performance, which had the theme was notably absent in the opening ceremony, “The New Long March.” The themes and which was especially significant since the use symbols utilized by this team of choreographers of dancing and singing minorities to symbolize had gradually evolved away from the political national unity is a common fixture in Chinese symbols that dominated ceremonies after 1949 national celebrations. The restoration of and toward “cultural symbols.” The 1990 Asian dialogue with the Dalai Lama and a discussion Games had taken place one year after the about whether to invite him to the opening Tiananmen Incident, which had been a disaster ceremony only emerged after the March for China’s international relations and a severe uprisings, which suggests that previous to that setback for its plans to reach out to the world time no serious attempt had been made to through the Asian Games. (The Asian Games utilize the Games toward reconciliationwere, nevertheless, the occasion for the first between Tibetans and Han. Indeed, the official cross-straits exchanges, and Taiwan National Traditional Games of Ethnicsent a large official delegation.)[2] In 1990 it Minorities of the People’s Republic of China, was recognized that “ethnic cultural” （民族文 which had been one of the showpieces of the 化）symbols were more attractive to the P.R.C.’s ethnic policy since their initiation in outside world in general and also constituted a 1953, suffered from a lack of attention due to shared cultural repertoire with East Asians and the focus on the Olympics when the th8 overseas Chinese.[3] installment was held in Guangzhou in December 2007. Most of the openingBy the time the planning for the Beijing ceremonies performers were Han students ceremonies had begun, this strategy for dressed as minorities and many of the athletes drawing in international audiences was known were Han students at sport institutes recently as the “cultural China” （文化中国）strategy. recruited to learn “traditional ethnic sports.” It traced its roots to multiple international developments, including the 1980s and 1990s Another reconciliation that did not take place works of Harvard historian and philosopher Tu at a symbolic level was that between the people Weiming and other “New Confucianists,” as and the Communist Party as represented in the well as government policies for promoting the figure of Chairman Mao. As Geremie Barmé “cultural industry” in Japan and South Korea in and Jeffrey Wasserstrom have observed,the mid to late 1990s; the international Chairman Mao was absent in Zhang Yimou’s orientation of the Korean cultural policies had opening ceremony, which skipped from the gained impetus from the 1986 Asian Games and Ming dynasty to the late 1970s and gave the 1988 Olympic Games in Seoul.[4] “Cultural spotlight to Confucius, whom Wasserstrom has China” was also expressed in the Chinese called “the comeback kid” of the Beijing government’s support for “Confucius Games. [1] The Communist Revolution was also Institutes” around the world, and it was linked generally absent from Olympic symbolism. to Hu Jintao’s concept of “soft power.” For the This was due to a decision that traced its roots Beijing 2008 Olympics, a key policy back to the 1990 Asian Games, China’s first recommendation from the People’s University hosting of a major international sport festival. concluded, “On this basis, we cautiously The cultural performance in the Asian Games propose that in the construction of China’s ceremony had been choreographed by the same national image, we should hold the line on national team of choreographers that had ‘cultural China,’ and the concept of ‘cultural designed the cultural performances for the China’ should not only be the core theme in the 2 7 | 23 | 4 APJ | JF dialogue between China and the international but was missed by Westerners with shorter and community in Olympic discourse, but also it more spatially distant memories. And it is should be added into the long-term strategic important to remember that the Beijing plan for the national image afterwards”[5]. Olympics were the first Olympics to take place Although the vast majority of educational and in an East Asian country that is not host to U.S. cultural programs surrounding the Beijing military bases. This was the “present absence” Olympics targeted the domestic population (see in 2008 in comparison to Tokyo 1964 and Seoul the discussion of Olympic education below), a 1988. debate about the target audience for the opening and closing ceremonies was resolved Shimizu Satoshi, Christian Tagsold, and Jilly in favor of the international audience. Film Traganou remind us that many of the symbols director Zhang Yimou, the choreographer of of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics established the ceremonies, is not well-regarded inside continuity with pre-war Japanese national China, where his work is seen as pandering to symbols.[6] Japan did not have an official Western tastes with a superficial and exoticized national flag or anthem in 1964: the hi no maru picture of traditional Chinese culture. His flag and the kimi gayo anthem had been “Eight Minute Segment” in the closingproscribed by the occupation authorities after ceremony of the Athens Olympics was so World War II and were not officially reinstated disliked that the bid competition for the as the national flag and anthem of Japan until choreography of the 2008 ceremonies was re- 1999, and indeed, they have been plagued by opened. That Zhang was finally re-confirmed in controversy ever since. However, the logo of 2005 indicates that the final decision was to the Tokyo Olympics consisted of the rising sun prioritize international tastes over domestic. over the five Olympic rings, which was also used in the first of the four official posters. While designer Kamekura Yūsaku denied that his design was the hi no maru, stating that it was meant simply to be a red sun, he had played an active role in nationalist representations of Japan in wartime propaganda. Tang Dynasty Symbolism in the Opening Ceremony. From BOCOG official website In the end, the only significant violence did not pit sovereign states against one another but took place in China’s Tibetan areas. However, this should not mislead us into thinking that the Beijing Games did not take place in the shadow of war – a point that, I believe, was very present in the minds of the East Asian audience 3 7 | 23 | 4 APJ | JF military colony.